; h \u003d 4.135 667 662 (25) × 10 −15 eV

The quantity ℏ ≡ h 2 π (\\ displaystyle \\ hbar \\ equiv (\\ frac (h) (2 \\ pi))):

ħ \u003d 1.054 571 800 (13) × 10 −34 J ·; ħ \u003d 1.054 571 800 (13) × 10 −27 erg ·; ħ \u003d 6.582 119 514 (40) × 10 −16 eV,

called the reduced (sometimes rationalized or reduced) Planck constant or Dirac constant. The use of this notation simplifies many formulas of quantum mechanics, since the traditional Planck constant is included in these formulas in the form of divided by a constant 2 π (\\ displaystyle (2 \\ pi)).

On November 16, 2018, at the meeting of the 26th General Conference of Weights and Measures, changes in the definitions of the basic SI units proposed in 2018 by the International Committee of Weights and Measures were adopted. The new SI definitions came into force on May 20, 2019. In accordance with Resolution XXVI of the GCMW, Planck's constant ℎ is exactly equal to 6.626 070 15⋅10 −34 kg · m 2 · s −1

Physical sense

In quantum mechanics, momentum has the physical meaning of the wave vector [ ], energy - frequencies, and action - wave phases, however, traditionally (historically) mechanical quantities are measured in other units (kg · m / s, J, J · s) than the corresponding wave (m −1, s −1, dimensionless phase units). Planck's constant plays the role of a conversion factor (always the same) connecting these two systems of units - quantum and traditional:

p \u003d ℏ k (| p | \u003d 2 π ℏ / λ) (\\ displaystyle \\ mathbf (p) \u003d \\ hbar \\ mathbf (k) \\, \\, \\, (| \\ mathbf (p) | \u003d 2 \\ pi \\ (pulse), E \u003d ℏ ω (\\ displaystyle E \u003d \\ hbar \\ omega) (energy), S \u003d ℏ ϕ (\\ displaystyle S \u003d \\ hbar \\ phi) (act). If the system of physical units was formed after the emergence of quantum mechanics and adapted to simplify the basic theoretical formulas, Planck's constant would probably simply be made equal to one, or, at any rate, a more round number. In theoretical physics, very often the system of units with

ℏ \u003d 1 (\\ displaystyle \\ hbar \u003d 1) , in itp \u003d k (| p | \u003d 2 π / λ), (\\ displaystyle \\ mathbf (p) \u003d \\ mathbf (k) \\, \\, \\, (| \\ mathbf (p) | \u003d 2 \\ pi / \\ lambda) ,)

E \u003d ω, (\\ displaystyle E \u003d \\ omega,) S \u003d ϕ, (\\ displaystyle S \u003d \\ phi,) (ℏ \u003d 1). (\\ displaystyle (\\ hbar \u003d 1).) Planck's constant also has a simple evaluative role in delimiting the areas of applicability of classical and quantum physics: it, in comparison with the magnitude of the action values \u200b\u200bor angular momentum characteristic of the system under consideration, or the products of the characteristic impulse by the characteristic size, or characteristic energy by the characteristic time, shows how applicable to this physical system, classical mechanics. Namely, if

S (\\ displaystyle S) is the action of the system, and M (\\ displaystyle M) is its angular momentum, then at S ℏ ≫ 1 (\\ displaystyle (\\ frac (S) (\\ hbar)) \\ gg 1) or M ℏ ≫ 1 (\\ displaystyle (\\ frac (M) (\\ hbar)) \\ gg 1) the behavior of the system is described with good accuracy by classical mechanics. These estimates are quite directly related to the Heisenberg uncertainty relations. Discovery history

Planck's formula for thermal radiation

Planck's formula is an expression for the spectral power density of the radiation of an absolutely black body, which was obtained by Max Planck for the equilibrium radiation density

u (ω, T) (\\ displaystyle u (\\ omega, T)) {!LANG-832d749e781f869cfabd6442c73b5d7b!}... Planck's formula was obtained after it became clear that the Rayleigh-Jeans formula satisfactorily describes radiation only in the long-wave region. In 1900, Planck proposed a formula with a constant (later called Planck's constant), which was in good agreement with experimental data. At the same time, Planck believed that this formula is just a successful mathematical trick, but has no physical meaning. That is, Planck did not assume that electromagnetic radiation is emitted in the form of separate portions of energy (quanta), the value of which is related to the cyclic frequency of radiation by the expression:

ε \u003d ℏ ω. (\\ displaystyle \\ varepsilon \u003d \\ hbar \\ omega.)

Aspect ratio ħ subsequently named planck constant , ħ ≈ 1.054⋅10 −34 J s.

Photo effect

The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons by a substance under the influence of light (and, generally speaking, any electromagnetic radiation). In condensed substances (solid and liquid), external and internal photoelectric effect is released.

The photoelectric effect was explained in 1905 by Albert Einstein (for which he received the Nobel Prize in 1921 thanks to a nomination by the Swedish physicist Oseen) on the basis of Planck's hypothesis of the quantum nature of light. Einstein's work contained an important new hypothesis - if Planck assumed that light emitted only quantized portions, then Einstein already believed that light and exist only in the form of quantized portions. From the law of conservation of energy, when light is represented in the form of particles (photons), Einstein's formula for the photoelectric effect follows:

ℏ ω \u003d A o u t + m v 2 2, (\\ displaystyle \\ hbar \\ omega \u003d A_ (out) + (\\ frac (mv ^ (2)) (2)),)

where A o u t (\\ displaystyle A_ (out)) - the so-called. work function (the minimum energy required to remove an electron from a substance), m v 2 2 (\\ displaystyle (\\ frac (mv ^ (2)) (2))) is the kinetic energy of the emitted electron, ω (\\ displaystyle \\ omega) is the frequency of the incident photon with energy ℏ ω, (\\ displaystyle \\ hbar \\ omega,) ℏ (\\ displaystyle \\ hbar) is Planck's constant. This formula implies the existence of the red border of the photoelectric effect, that is, the existence of the lowest frequency, below which the photon energy is no longer sufficient to "knock" the electron out of the body. The essence of the formula is that the energy of a photon is spent on the ionization of an atom of a substance, that is, on the work necessary to "pull out" an electron, and the remainder is converted into the kinetic energy of an electron.

Compton effect

Measurement methods

Using the laws of the photoelectric effect

With this method of measuring Planck's constant, Einstein's law is used for the photoelectric effect:

K m a x \u003d h ν - A, (\\ displaystyle K_ (max) \u003d h \\ nu -A,)

where K m a x (\\ displaystyle K_ (max)) is the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted from the cathode,

ν (\\ displaystyle \\ nu) is the frequency of the incident light, A (\\ displaystyle A) - the so-called. work function of the electron.

The measurement is carried out as follows. First, the cathode of the photocell is irradiated with monochromatic light with a frequency ν 1 (\\ displaystyle \\ nu _ (1))while a blocking voltage is applied to the photocell, so that the current through the photocell stops. In this case, the following relationship takes place, which directly follows from Einstein's law:

h ν 1 \u003d A + e U 1, (\\ displaystyle h \\ nu _ (1) \u003d A + eU_ (1),)

where e (\\ displaystyle e) -

CONSTANT PLANKSh, one of the universal numerical constants of nature, included in many formulas and physical laws that describe the behavior of matter and energy on the scale of the microworld. The existence of this constant was established in 1900 by M. Planck, a professor of physics at the University of Berlin, in a work that laid the foundations of quantum theory. He also gave a preliminary estimate of its value. The currently accepted value of Planck's constant is (6.6260755 ± 0.00023) H 10 –34 JH s.

Planck made this discovery while trying to find a theoretical explanation for the spectrum of radiation emitted by heated bodies. Such radiation is emitted by all bodies consisting of a large number of atoms at any temperature above absolute zero, but it becomes noticeable only at temperatures close to the boiling point of water 100 ° C and above it. In addition, it covers the entire frequency spectrum from radio frequency to infrared, visible and ultraviolet. In the region of visible light, the radiation becomes sufficiently bright only at about 550 ° C. The dependence of the radiation intensity per unit time on frequency is characterized by the spectral distributions shown in Fig. 1 for several temperatures. The radiation intensity at a given frequency is the amount of energy emitted in a narrow frequency band in the vicinity of a given frequency. The area of \u200b\u200bthe curve is proportional to the total energy emitted at all frequencies. As it is easy to see, this area increases rapidly with increasing temperature.

Planck wanted to theoretically derive the spectral distribution function and find an explanation for two simple experimentally established regularities: the frequency corresponding to the brightest glow of a heated body is proportional to the absolute temperature, and the total energy emitted for 1 with a unit area of \u200b\u200bthe surface of an absolutely black body is the fourth power of its absolute temperature ...

The first regularity can be expressed by the formula

where n m Is the frequency corresponding to the maximum radiation intensity, T Is the absolute body temperature, and a - a constant depending on the properties of the emitting object. The second regularity is expressed by the formula

where E - total energy emitted by a unit surface area in 1 s, sIs a constant characterizing an emitting object, and T - absolute body temperature. The first formula is called Wien's displacement law, and the second is called the Stefan-Boltzmann law. Planck strove, on the basis of these laws, to derive an exact expression for the spectral distribution of the radiated energy at any temperature.

The universal nature of the phenomenon could be explained from the standpoint of the second law of thermodynamics, according to which thermal processes proceeding spontaneously in a physical system always go in the direction of establishing thermal equilibrium in the system. Let's imagine that two hollow bodies AND and IN different shapes, different sizes and from different materials with the same temperature facing each other, as shown in fig. 2. Assuming that from AND in IN more radiation comes from IN in ANDthen body IN would inevitably become warmer due to AND and the balance would be spontaneously disturbed. Such a possibility is excluded by the second law of thermodynamics, and therefore, both bodies must emit the same amount of energy, and, therefore, the quantity s in formula (2) does not depend on the size and material of the emitting surface, provided that the latter is a certain cavity. If the cavities were separated by a color screen that would filter and reflect back all radiation, except for radiation with any one frequency, then everything said would remain true. This means that the amount of radiation emitted by each cavity in each part of the spectrum is the same, and the spectral distribution function for the cavity has the character of a universal law of nature, and the quantity a in formula (1), like the quantity s, is a universal physical constant.

Planck, who was well versed in thermodynamics, preferred just such a solution to the problem and, acting by trial and error, found a thermodynamic formula that made it possible to calculate the spectral distribution function. The resulting formula was consistent with all available experimental data and, in particular, with empirical formulas (1) and (2). To explain this, Planck used a clever trick suggested by the second law of thermodynamics. Rightly believing that the thermodynamics of matter is better studied than the thermodynamics of radiation, he focused his attention primarily on the matter of the cavity walls, and not on the radiation inside it. Since the constants included in the Wien and Stefan-Boltzmann laws do not depend on the nature of the substance, Planck had the right to make any assumptions about the material of the walls. He chose a model in which the walls are composed of a huge number of tiny electrically charged oscillators, each with its own frequency. Oscillators under the influence of incident radiation can vibrate, while emitting energy. The whole process could be investigated proceeding from the well-known laws of electrodynamics, i.e. the spectral distribution function could be found by calculating the average energy of oscillators with different frequencies. Reversing the sequence of reasoning, Planck, proceeding from the correct spectral distribution function he guessed, found a formula for the average energy U oscillator with frequency n in a cavity in equilibrium at absolute temperature T:

where b Is the value determined experimentally, and k - constant (called the Boltzmann constant, although it was first introduced by Planck), which appears in thermodynamics and the kinetic theory of gases. Since this constant usually enters with a factor T, it is convenient to introduce a new constant h= b k. Then b = h/k and formula (3) can be rewritten as

New permanent h and represents the Planck constant; its value calculated by Planck was 6.55 Ч 10 –34 JH s, which is only about 1% different from the present value. Planck's theory made it possible to express the value s in formula (2) through h, k and the speed of light from:

This expression agreed with experiment within the limits of the accuracy with which the constants were known; later, more accurate measurements did not reveal any discrepancies.

Thus, the problem of explaining the spectral distribution function has been reduced to a "simpler" problem. It was necessary to explain what is the physical meaning of the constant hor rather works hn... Planck's discovery was that its physical meaning can be explained only by introducing into mechanics a completely new concept of "energy quantum". On December 14, 1900, at a meeting of the German Physical Society, Planck showed in his report that formula (4), and thus the rest of the formulas, can be explained if we assume that an oscillator with a frequency n exchanges energy with the electromagnetic field not continuously, but as if in steps, acquiring and losing its energy in discrete portions, quanta, each of which is equal to hn... HEAT; THERMODYNAMICS. The consequences of the discovery made by Planck are presented in the articles PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT; COMPTON EFFECT; ATOM; ATOM BUILDING; QUANTUM MECHANICS.

Quantum mechanics is a general theory of phenomena on the scale of the microworld. Planck's discovery now appears as an important consequence of a special character following from the equations of this theory. In particular, it turned out that it is valid for of all energy exchange processes that occur during oscillatory motion, for example, in acoustics and in electromagnetic phenomena. It explains the high penetrating power of X-rays, the frequencies of which are 100–10,000 times higher than the frequencies characteristic of visible light, and whose quanta have correspondingly higher energies. Planck's discovery serves as the basis for the entire wave theory of matter, which deals with the wave properties of elementary particles and their combinations.

between the characteristics of the wave and the particle. This hypothesis was confirmed, which made Planck's constant a universal physical constant. Its role turned out to be much more significant than one might have assumed from the very beginning.

In this article, on the basis of the photonic concept, the physical essence of the “fundamental constant” of the Planck constant is revealed. Arguments are given showing that Planck's constant is a typical parameter of a photon, which is a function of its wavelength.

Introduction.The end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th centuries were marked by a crisis in theoretical physics caused by the inability to substantiate a number of problems using the methods of classical physics, one of which was the “ultraviolet catastrophe”. The essence of this problem consisted in the fact that when the law of energy distribution in the radiation spectrum of an absolutely black body was established by the methods of classical physics, the spectral density of the radiation energy had to grow indefinitely as the radiation wavelength decreased. In fact, this problem showed, if not the internal inconsistency of classical physics, then, in any case, an extremely sharp discrepancy with elementary observations and experiment.

Studies of the properties of radiation of an absolutely black body, which took place for almost forty years (1860-1900), ended with the advancement of Max Planck's hypothesis that the energy of any system E when emitting or absorbing electromagnetic radiation frequency ν (\\ displaystyle ~ \\ nu) can change only by a multiple of the quantum energy:

Е γ \u003d hν (\\ displaystyle ~ E \u003d h \\ nu). (1) (\\ displaystyle ~ h)

Aspect ratio h in expression (1) entered the science called "Plank constant", becoming the main constant quantum theory .

The blackbody problem was revised in 1905, when Rayleigh and Jeans on the one hand, and Einstein on the other, independently proved that classical electrodynamics could not substantiate the observed radiation spectrum. This led to the so-called "ultraviolet catastrophe", thus designated by Ehrenfest in 1911. The efforts of theorists (together with Einstein's work on the photoelectric effect) led to the recognition that Planck's postulate on the quantization of energy levels is not a simple mathematical formalism, but important element ideas about physical reality.

Further development Planck's quantum ideas - substantiation of the photoeffect using the hypothesis of light quanta (A. Einstein, 1905), a postulate in Bohr's theory of the atom, quantization of the angular momentum of an electron in an atom (N. Bohr, 1913), the discovery of de Broglie's relation between the mass of a particle and its wavelength ( L. De Broglie, 1921), and then the creation of quantum mechanics (1925 - 26) and the establishment of fundamental relations of uncertainty between momentum and coordinate and between energy and time (W. Heisenberg, 1927) led to the establishment of the fundamental status of the Planck constant in physics.

Modern quantum physics also adheres to this point of view: “In the future, it will become clear to us that the formula E / ν \u003d h expresses the fundamental principle of quantum physics, namely the universal relationship between energy and frequency: E \u003d hν. This connection is completely alien to classical physics, and the mystical constant h is a manifestation of the mysteries of nature not comprehended at that time ”.

At the same time, there was an alternative view of the Planck constant: “Textbooks on quantum mechanics say that classical physics is physics in which h equals zero. But in fact, Planck's constant h Is nothing more than a quantity that actually defines a concept well known in the classical physics of a gyroscope. Interpretation to adepts studying physics that h ≠ 0 is a purely quantum phenomenon that has no analogue in classical physics, was one of the main elements aimed at strengthening the belief about the need for quantum mechanics. ”

Thus, the views of theoretical physicists on the Planck constant were divided. On the one hand, its exclusiveness and mystification is observed, and on the other, an attempt to give a physical interpretation that does not go beyond the framework of classical physics. This situation remains in physics and at the present time, and will remain until the physical essence of this constant is established.

The physical nature of the Planck constant.Planck was able to calculate the value h from experimental data on blackbody radiation: its result was 6.55 10 −34 J s, with an accuracy of 1.2% of the currently accepted value, however, to substantiate the physical nature of the constant h he could not. The disclosure of the physical essences of any phenomena is not characteristic of quantum mechanics: “The reason for the crisis in specific areas of science is the general inability of modern theoretical physics to understand the physical essence of phenomena, to reveal the internal mechanism of phenomena, the structure of material formations and fields of interaction, to understand the cause-and-effect relationships between elements, phenomena. " Therefore, in addition to mythology in this matter, she could not imagine anything else. In general, these views are reflected in the work: “Constant Plank h as a physical fact means the existence of the smallest finite amount of action in nature, which cannot be reduced and cannot be reduced to zero. As a nonzero commutator for any pair of dynamic and kinematic quantities that form the dimension of action by their product, Planck's constant generates the property of non-commutativity for these quantities, which in turn is the primary and irreplaceable source of an inevitably probabilistic description of physical reality in any spaces of dynamics and kinematics. Hence - the universality and universality of quantum physics. "

In contrast to the ideas of the adepts of quantum physics on the nature of the Planck constant, their opponents were more pragmatic. The physical meaning of their representations was reduced to “calculating by methods of classical mechanics the value of the principal angular momentum of an electron P e (angular momentum associated with the rotation of an electron around its own axis) and obtaining a mathematical expression for Planck's constant " h "Through the known fundamental constants." From what the physical essence was justified: “ planck's constant « h » equals magnitude classic the main angular momentum of the electron (associated with the rotation of the electron around its own axis), multiplied by 4 p. ”

The fallacy of these views lies in the lack of understanding of the nature of elementary particles and the origins of the Planck constant. An electron is a structural element of an atom of a substance, which has its own functional purpose - the formation of the physicochemical properties of atoms of a substance. Therefore, it cannot act as a carrier of electromagnetic radiation, that is, Planck's hypothesis on the transfer of energy by a quantum to an electron is inapplicable.

To substantiate the physical essence of Planck's constant, let us consider this problem in a historical aspect. From the above, it follows that the solution to the problem of the "ultraviolet catastrophe" was Planck's hypothesis that the radiation of an absolutely black body occurs in portions, ie, in energy quanta. Many physicists of that time initially assumed that the quantization of energy is the result of some unknown property of matter that absorbs and radiates electromagnetic waves. However, already in 1905, Einstein developed Planck's idea, suggesting that the quantization of energy is a property of the electromagnetic radiation itself. Proceeding from the hypothesis of light quanta, he explained a number of regularities of the photoelectric effect, luminescence, photochemical reactions.

The validity of Einstein's hypothesis was experimentally confirmed by the study of the photoelectric effect by R. Milliken (1914-1916) and the studies of X-ray scattering by electrons by A. Compton (1922 - 1923). Thus, it became possible to consider a light quantum as an elementary particle that obeys the same kinematic laws as the particles of matter.

In 1926, Lewis proposed the term "photon" for this particle, which was adopted by the scientific community. According to modern concepts, a photon is an elementary particle, a quantum of electromagnetic radiation. Rest mass of a photon m g is zero (experimental limitation m g<5 . 10 -60 г), и поэтому его скорость равна скорости света . Электрический заряд фотона также равен нулю .

If a photon is a quantum (carrier) of electromagnetic radiation, then its electric charge cannot be equal to zero in any way. The inconsistency of this representation of the photon has become one of the reasons for the misunderstanding of the physical essence of the Planck constant.

The unsolvable substantiation of the physical essence of the Planck constant within the framework of existing physical theories allows one to overcome the ether-dynamic concept developed by V.A. Atsyukovsky.

In ether-dynamic models, elementary particles are interpreted as closed vortex formations (rings), in the walls of which the ether is substantially condensed, and elementary particles, atoms and molecules are structures that unite such vortices. The existence of annular and screw motions corresponds to the presence of a mechanical moment (spin) in particles directed along the axis of its free motion.

According to this concept, structurally, a photon is a closed toroidal vortex with an annular motion of the torus (like a wheel) and a helical motion inside it. The source of photon generation is a proton-electron pair of atoms of a substance. As a result of excitation, due to the symmetry of its structure, each proton-electron pair generates two photons. An experimental confirmation of this is the process of annihilation of an electron and a positron.

Photon is the only one elementary particle, which is characterized by three types of movements: rotary movement around its own axis of rotation, rectilinear movement in a given direction and rotary movement with a certain radius R relative to the axis of rectilinear motion. The last movement is interpreted as movement along a cycloid. A cycloid is a periodic function along the abscissa axis, with a period 2π R (\\ displaystyle 2 \\ pi r) /…. For a photon, the period of the cycloid is interpreted as the wavelength λ , which is the argument of all other parameters of the photon.

On the other hand, the wavelength is also one of the parameters of electromagnetic radiation: a disturbance (change in state) of the electromagnetic field propagating in space. For which the wavelength is the distance between two points in space closest to each other, at which the oscillations occur in the same phase.

This implies a significant difference in the concepts of wavelength for a photon and electromagnetic radiation in general.

For a photon, the wavelength and frequency are related by the relationship

ν \u003d u γ / λ, (2)

where u γ - the speed of the linear motion of the photon.

Photon is a concept related to a family (set) of elementary particles, united by common signs of existence. Each photon is characterized by its own specific set of characteristics, one of which is the wavelength. At the same time, taking into account the interdependence of these characteristics from each other, in practice it has become convenient to represent the characteristics (parameters) of a photon as a function of one variable. The photon wavelength was determined as an independent variable.

Known value u λ \u003d 299 792 458 ± 1.2 /, defined as the speed of light. This value was obtained by K. Ivenson and his co-workers in 1972 from the cesium frequency standard of a CH 4 laser, and from the krypton frequency standard - its wavelength (about 3.39 μm). Thus, formally, the speed of light is defined as the rectilinear speed of movement of photons with a wavelength λ = 3,39 10 -6 m. Theoretically (\\ displaystyle 2 \\ pi r) /… it is established that the speed of motion of (rectilinear) photons is variable and non-linear, i.e. u λ \u003d f ( λ). Experimental confirmation of this is the work related to the research and development of laser frequency standards (\\ displaystyle 2 \\ pi r) /…. It follows from the results of these studies that all photons for which λ < 3,39 10 -6 m move faster than the speed of light. The limiting speed of photons (gamma range) is the second sound speed of the ether 3 10 8 m / s (\\ displaystyle 2 \\ pi r) /….

These studies allow us to make another significant conclusion that the change in the speed of the photons in the region of their existence does not exceed ≈0.1%. Such a relatively small change in the speed of photons in the region of their existence allows us to speak of the speed of photons as a quasi-constant quantity.

Photon is an elementary particle, the inherent properties of which are mass and electric charge. Ehrengaft's experiments proved that the electric charge of a photon (subelectron) has a continuous spectrum, and from Millikan's experiments it follows that for an X-ray photon with a wavelength of approximately 10 -9 m, the electric charge is 0.80108831 C (\\ displaystyle 2 \\ pi r ) /….

According to the first materialized definition of the physical essence of an electric charge: “ the elementary electric charge is proportional to the mass distributed over the section of the elementary vortex“The opposite statement follows, that the mass distributed on the vortex section is proportional to the electric charge. Based on the physical essence of an electric charge, it follows that the mass of a photon also has a continuous spectrum. Based on the structural similarity of elementary particles of a proton, electron and photon, the values \u200b\u200bof the mass and radius of the proton (respectively, m p \u003d1.672621637 (83) 10 -27 kg, r p = 0.8751 10 -15 m (\\ displaystyle 2 \\ pi r) /…), and also assuming the equality of the ether density in these particles, the mass of the photon is estimated at 10 -40 kg, and its radius of the circular orbit is 0.179◦10 -16 m, the radius of the photon's body (outer radius of the torus) is presumably in the range of 0.01 - 0.001 of the radius of a circular orbit, ie, about 10 -19 - 10 -20 m.

Based on the concept of the multiplicity of photons and the dependence of the photon parameters on the wavelength, as well as from the experimentally confirmed facts of the continuity of the spectrum of the electric charge and mass, it can be assumed that e λ , m λ = f ( λ ) which are quasi-constant.

Based on the foregoing, we can say that expression (1) establishing the relationship between the energy of any system during emission or absorption of electromagnetic radiation with a frequency ν (\\ displaystyle ~ \\ nu)there is nothing more than the relationship between the energy of photons emitted or absorbed by the body and the frequency (wavelength) of these photons. And Planck's constant is the coefficient of relationship. This representation of the relationship between the energy of a photon and its frequency removes the meaning of its universality and fundamental nature from Planck's constant. In this context, Planck's constant becomes one of the parameters of the photon, depending on the wavelength of the photon.

For a complete and sufficient proof of this statement, consider the energy aspect of a photon. It is known from experimental data that a photon is characterized by an energy spectrum that has a nonlinear dependence: for photons in the infrared range Е λ \u003d 0.62 eV for λ = 2 10 -6 m, x-ray Е λ \u003d 124 eV for λ = 10 -8 m, gamma range Е λ \u003d 124000 eV for λ = 10 -11 m. From the nature of the movement of the photon, it follows that the total energy of the photon consists of the kinetic energy of rotation around its own axis, the kinetic energy of rotation along a circular trajectory (cycloid) and the energy of rectilinear movement:

E λ \u003d E 0 λ + E 1 λ + E 2 λ, (3)

where E 0 λ \u003d m λ r 2 γ λ ω 2 γ λ is the kinetic energy of rotation around its own axis,

E 1 λ \u003d m λ u λ 2 is the energy of rectilinear motion, E 2 λ \u003d m λ R 2 λ ω 2 λ is the kinetic energy of rotation along a circular trajectory, where r γ λ is the radius of the photon's body, R γ λ is the radius of the circular trajectory , ω γ λ is the natural frequency of rotation of the photon around the axis, ω λ \u003d ν - circular frequency of rotation of a photon, m λ - mass of a photon.

The kinetic energy of the motion of a photon in a circular orbit

E 2 λ \u003d m λ r 2 λ ω 2 λ \u003d m λ r 2 λ (2π u λ / λ) 2 \u003d m λ u λ 2 ◦ (2π r λ / λ) 2 \u003d E 1 λ ◦ (2π r λ / λ) 2.

E 2 λ \u003d E 1 λ ◦ (2π r λ / λ) 2. (4)

Expression (4) shows that the kinetic energy of rotation along a circular trajectory is part of the energy of rectilinear motion, which depends on the radius of the circular trajectory and the photon wavelength

(2π r λ / λ) 2. (five)

Let us estimate this value. For infrared photons

(2π r λ / λ) 2 \u003d (2π 10 -19 m / 2 10 -6 m) 2 \u003d π 10 -13.

For gamma photons

(2π r λ / λ) 2 \u003d (2π 10 -19 m / 2 10 -11 m) 2 \u003d π 10 -8.

Thus, in the entire region of existence of a photon, its kinetic energy of rotation along a circular trajectory is much less than the energy of rectilinear motion and can be neglected.

Let's estimate the energy of rectilinear motion.

E 1 λ \u003d m λ u λ 2 \u003d 10 -40 kg (3 10 8 m / s) 2 \u003d 0.9 10 -23 kg m 2 / s 2 \u003d 5.61 10 -5 eV.

The energy of the rectilinear motion of a photon in the energy balance (3) is much less than the total energy of a photon, for example, in the infrared range (5.61 10 -5 eV< 0,62 эВ), что указывает на то, что полная энергия фотона фактически определяется собственной кинетической энергией вращения вокруг оси фотона.

Thus, in view of the smallness of the energies of rectilinear motion and motion along a circular trajectory, we can say that the energy spectrum of a photon consists of the spectrum of its own kinetic energies of rotation around the axis of the photon.

Therefore, expression (1) can be represented as

E 0 λ \u003d hν ,

i.e. (\\ displaystyle ~ E \u003d h \\ nu)

m λ r 2 γ λ ω 2 γ λ \u003d h ν . (6)

h = m λ r 2 γ λ ω 2 γ λ / ν = m λ r 2 γ λ ω 2 γ λ / ω λ. (7)

Expression (7) can be represented in the following form

h = m λ r 2 γ λ ω 2 γ λ / ω λ \u003d (m λ r 2 γ λ) ω 2 γ λ / ω λ \u003d k λ (λ) ω 2 γ λ / ω λ.

h = k λ (λ) ω 2 γ λ / ω λ. (eight)

Where k λ (λ) \u003d m λ r 2 γ λ is some quasi-constant.

Let us estimate the values \u200b\u200bof the natural frequencies of rotation of photons around the axis: for example,

for λ = 2 10 -6 m (infrared range)

ω 2 γ i \u003d E 0i / m i r 2 γ i \u003d 0.62 1.602 10 -19 J / (10 -40 kg 10 -38 m 2) \u003d 0.99 1059 s -2,

ω γ i \u003d 3.14 10 29 rev / s.

for λ = 10 -11 m (gamma range)

ω γ i \u003d 1.4 10 32 rev / s.

Let us estimate the ratio ω 2 γ λ / ω λ for photons of infrared and gamma ranges. After substituting the above data, we get:

for λ = 2 10 -6 m (infrared range) - ω 2 γ λ / ω λ \u003d 6.607 10 44,

for λ = 10 -11 m (gamma range) - ω 2 γ λ / ω λ \u003d 6.653 10 44.

That is, expression (8) shows that the ratio of the square of the frequency of the proper rotation of a photon to the rotation along a circular trajectory is a quasi-constant value for the entire region of existence of photons. In this case, the value of the frequency of proper rotation of the photon in the region of existence of the photon changes by three orders of magnitude. From which it follows that Planck's constant is quasi-constant.

We transform expression (6) as follows

m λ r 2 γ λ ω γ λ ω γ λ \u003d h ω λ .

M \u003dh ω λ / ω γ λ , (9)

where М \u003d m λ r 2 γ λ ω γ λ is the own gyroscopic moment of the photon.

The physical essence of Planck's constant follows from expression (9): Planck's constant is a coefficient of proportionality that establishes the relationship between the intrinsic gyroscopic moment of a photon and the ratio of rotation frequencies (along a circular path and intrinsic), which has the character of quasi-constant in the entire region of existence of a photon.

We transform expression (7) as follows

h = m λ r 2 γ λ ω 2 γ λ / ω λ \u003d m λ r 2 γ λ m λ r 2 γ λ R 2 λ ω 2 γ λ / (m λ r 2 γ λ R 2 λ ω λ) \u003d

\u003d (m λ r 2 γ λ ω γ λ) 2 R 2 λ / (m λ R 2 λ ω λ r 2 γ λ) \u003d M 2 γ λ R 2 λ / M λ r 2 γ λ,

h = (M 2 γ λ / M λ) (R 2 λ / r 2 γ λ),

h (r 2 γ λ / R 2 λ), = (M 2 γ λ / M λ) (10)

Expression (10) also shows that the ratio of the square of the photon's own gyroscopic moment to the gyroscopic moment of motion along a circular trajectory (cycloid) is a quasi-constant quantity in the entire region of existence of a photon and is determined by the expression h (r 2 γ λ / R 2 λ).

Light is a form of radiant energy that travels through space in the form of electromagnetic waves. In 1900, scientist Max Planck - one of the founders of quantum mechanics - proposed a theory according to which radiant energy is emitted and absorbed not by a continuous wave stream, but by separate portions, which are called quanta (photons).

The energy carried by one quantum is equal to: E \u003d hv,where v Is the radiation frequency, and h – elementary quantum of action,which is a new universal constant, which was soon named planck's constant (according to modern data h \u003d6.626 × 10 –34 J · s).

In 1913, Niels Bohr created a neat, albeit simplified, model of the atom, consistent with the Planck distribution. Bohr proposed a theory of radiation, based on the following postulates:

1. There are stationary states in the atom, being in which the atom does not radiate energy. Stationary states of an atom correspond to stationary orbits along which electrons move;

2. When an electron passes from one stationary orbit to another (from one stationary state to another), a quantum of energy is emitted or absorbed hν = ‌‌‌‌‌‌‌‌‌|E i – E n | where ν Is the frequency of the emitted quantum, E i – the energy of the state from which it passes, and E n - the energy of the state into which the electron passes.

If an electron under any influence moves from an orbit close to the nucleus to some other more distant one, then the energy of the atom increases, but that requires the expenditure of external energy. But such an excited state of the atom is unstable and the electron falls back towards the nucleus to a closer possible orbit.

And when an electron jumps (falls) into an orbit lying closer to the nucleus of an atom, then the energy lost by the atom goes over into one quantum of radiant energy emitted by the atom.

Accordingly, any atom can emit a wide range of interconnected discrete frequencies, which depends on the orbits of the electrons in the atom.

A hydrogen atom consists of a proton and an electron moving around it. If the electron absorbs a portion of the energy, then the atom goes into an excited state. If the electron gives up energy, then the atom passes from a higher to a lower energy state. Usually, transitions from a higher energy state to a lower energy state are accompanied by the emission of energy in the form of light. However, nonradiative transitions are also possible. In this case, the atom goes into a lower energy state without emission of light, and the excess energy is given, for example, to another atom when they collide.

If an atom, passing from one energy state to another, emits a spectral line with a wavelength λ, then, in accordance with Bohr's second postulate, energy is radiated E equal to:, where h - Planck's constant; c is the speed of light.

The collection of all the spectral lines that an atom can emit is called its emission spectrum.

As quantum mechanics shows, the spectrum of the hydrogen atom is expressed by the formula:

where R - a constant called Rydberg's constant; n 1 and n 2 numbers, and n 1 < n 2 .

Each spectral line is characterized by a pair of quantum numbers n 2 and n 1 . They indicate the energy levels of the atom, respectively, before and after radiation.

When electrons pass from excited energy levels to the first ( n 1 = 1; respectively n 2 = 2, 3, 4, 5 ...) is formed lyman series.All lines of the Lyman series are in ultraviolet range.

Transitions of electrons from excited energy levels to the second level ( n 1 = 2; respectively n 2 = 3,4,5,6,7 ...) form balmer series... The first four lines (that is, for n 2 \u003d 3, 4, 5, 6) are in the visible spectrum, the rest (that is, for n 2 = 7, 8, 9) in ultraviolet.

That is, the visible spectral lines of this series are obtained if the electron jumps to the second level (second orbit): red - from the 3rd orbit, green - from the 4th orbit, blue - from the 5th orbit, violet - from 6- oh orbit.

Transitions of electrons from excited energy levels to the third ( n 1 = 3; respectively n 2 = 4, 5, 6, 7 ...) form paschen series... All lines of the Paschen series are located in infrared range.

Transitions of electrons from excited energy levels to the fourth ( n 1 = 4; respectively n 2 = 6, 7, 8 ...) form the Brackett series.All lines in the series are in the far infrared range.

Also in the spectral series of hydrogen, the Pfund and Humphrey series are distinguished.

Observing the line spectrum of the hydrogen atom in the visible region (Balmer series) and measuring the wavelength λ of the spectral lines of this series, it is possible to determine the Planck constant.

In the SI system, the calculation formula for finding Planck's constant when performing laboratory work will take the form:

,

where n 1 = 2 (Balmer series); n 2 = 3, 4, 5, 6.

= 3.2 × 10 -93

λ - wavelength ( nm)

Planck's constant appears in all equations and formulas of quantum mechanics. It, in particular, determines the scale from which the heisenberg uncertainty principle... Roughly speaking, Planck's constant indicates to us the lower limit of spatial quantities, after which quantum effects cannot be ignored. For grains of sand, say, the uncertainty in the product of their linear size and speed is so insignificant that it can be neglected. In other words, Planck's constant draws the border between the macrocosm, where the laws of Newtonian mechanics operate, and the microcosm, where the laws of quantum mechanics come into force. Being obtained only for the theoretical description of a single physical phenomenon, Planck's constant soon became one of the fundamental constants of theoretical physics, determined by the very nature of the universe.

The work can be performed both on a laboratory installation and on a computer.

rev. from 11/19/2011 - (animation added)

It should be recalled that in Rod Johnson's Logical Physics model, we see the following:

There are no "solid particles", there are only groupings of energy.
each quantum dimension can be geometrically explained as a form of structured, intersecting energy fields.
atoms are energy forms rotating in opposite directions in the form of Platonic Solids, namely rotating in opposite directions octahedron and tetrahedron... Moreover, each vibrational / pulsating form corresponds to a certain basic density of the ether.
in the entire Universe, all levels of density or dimensions are structured from two primary levels of aether, continuously interacting with each other.

According to Johnson's model, there is one that continuously intersects with our reality in every atom, at the tiniest level. Each atom has one geometry in our reality and the opposite, inverse geometry in a parallel reality. The two geometries rotate in opposite directions within each other. Each stage of this process guides you through.

However, since conventional scientists have not yet visualized the Platonic Rigid Bodies, nested within each other, sharing a common axis and capable of rotating in opposite directions, they have lost the picture of quantum reality.

Most people already know that heat radiation and light are created by a very simple thing - the movement of bursts of electromagnetic energy known as “photons”.

However, until 1900, it was believed that light and heat do not move in the form of discrete units of "photons", but smoothly, smoothly and inseparably. Physicist Max Planck was the first to discover that at the tiniest level, light and heat move in “pulsations” or “packets” of energy, 10 -32 cm in size. (Compared to this size, an atomic nucleus would be the size of a planet!)

Interestingly, the faster the oscillation, the larger the packets, and, accordingly, the slower the oscillation, the smaller the packets.

Planck discovered that the relationship between oscillation speed and packet size always remains constant, no matter how you measure them. The constant relationship between oscillation speed and packet size is known as Wayne's Law of Distribution.

Planck found a single number that expresses this ratio. It is now known as the "Plank Constant".

An article by Carolyn Hartman (December 2001 issue of Science and Technology for the 21st Century) focuses exclusively on the discoveries of Max Planck. She reveals that the puzzle created by his discoveries remains unsolved:

“Today, in order to gain a deeper insight into the structure of the atom, it is our duty to continue the research of such scientists as Curie, Lisa Meitner and Otto Hahn.
But fundamental questions: What causes the movement of electrons, whether it obeys certain geometric laws, and why some elements are more stable than others, do not yet have answers and expect new advanced hypotheses and ideas.

In this post, we can already see the answer to Hartman's question. As we said, Planck's discoveries were made as a result of the study of thermal radiation. The opening paragraph in Carolyn Hartman's article is a perfect account of his accomplishments:

“A hundred years ago, on December 14, 1900, physicist Max Planck (1858-1947) announced the discovery of a new radiation formula that could describe all the regularities observed when matter heats up when it begins to emit heat of different colors.
Moreover, the new formula was based on one important assumption - the radiation energy is not constant, radiation occurs only in packets of a certain size.
The difficulty is how to make the assumption behind the "formula" physically understandable. What do you mean by "energy packets", which are even not constant, but change proportionally to the frequency of oscillation (Wein's Law of Distribution)? "

A little later, Hartman continues:

“Planck knew that whenever you run into a seemingly insoluble problem in Nature, there must be more complex patterns at its root; in other words, there must be a different "geometry of the universe" than previously thought.
For example, Planck always insisted that the reliability of Maxwell's equations should be revised, because physics has reached a stage of development at which the so-called “physical laws” are no longer universal. ”

The kernel of Planck's work can be expressed in a simple equation describing how emitting matter releases energy in “bursts” or bursts.

This equation E \u003d hvwhere E Is the final measurable energy, v Is the vibration frequency of the energy-releasing radiation, and h - known as the “Planck Constant”, regulating the “flow” between v and E.

Planck's constant is 6,626 ... This is an abstract expression, since it expresses a pure relationship between two quantities and does not need to be assigned to any particular category of measurement other than this.

Planck did not discover this constant by a miracle, but rather he meticulously derived it through the study of many different types of thermal radiation.

This is the first major mystery that Johnson clarifies in his research. He recalls that Descartes' (rectangular) coordinate system is used to measure Planck's constant.

This system is named after its creator René Descartes and means that cubes are used to measure three-dimensional space.

It has become so familiar that most scientists do not even consider it to be anything unusual - just length, width and height.

Experiments such as Planck's experiments use a small cube to measure the energy moving through a specific region of space. In Planck's system of measurements, for the sake of simplicity, this cube was naturally assigned the volume of “one”.

However, when Planck wrote his constant, he did not want to deal with a decimal number, so he shifted the volume of the cube to 10. This made the constant equal 6,626 instead 0,6626 .

What really mattered was the relationship between something inside the cube (6.626) and the cube itself (10).

It doesn't matter if you assign a volume of one, ten, or any other number to the cube, since the ratio always remains constant. As we said, Planck figured out the permanent nature of this relationship only through meticulous experiments over many years.

Remember that depending on the size of the bag you are releasing, you will need to measure it with different sized cube.

And yet, whatever is inside a cube will always have 6,626 cube volume units if the volume of the cube itself is 10, regardless of the dimensions involved.

It should be noted right now - the value 6,626 very close to 6,666 , which is exactly 2/3 from 10... Therefore, one should ask: “Why are it so important 2/3 ?”

Based on simple measurable geometric principles explained by Fuller and others, we know that if a tetrahedron is perfectly placed inside a sphere, it will fill exactly 1/3 of the total volume of the sphere. That is 3.333 out of 10.

In fact a photon consists of two tetrahedra connected together, which we see in the figure.

The total volume (of energy) moving through the cube will be exactly 2/3 (6.666) of the total volume of the cube, to which Planck assigned the number 10.

Buckminster Fuller was the first to discover that the photon is composed of two tetrahedrons. He announced this to the world in 1969 at Planet Planningafter which it was completely forgotten.

A small difference of 0.040 between a “pure” 6.666 or 2/3 ratio and Planck's constant 6.626 is created specific vacuum capacitywhich absorbs some energy.

The specific capacity of a vacuum can be accurately calculated using what is known as the Coulomb equation.

In simpler terms, the energy of the ether of the “physical vacuum” will absorb a small amount of any energy passing through it.

Therefore, once we take into account the Coulomb equation, the numbers work perfectly. Moreover, if we measure space using tetrahedral coordinates instead of cubic coordinates, there is no need for Planck's equation E \u003d hv. In this case, the energy will be measured the same on both sides of the equation, that is, E (energy) will be equal to v (frequency), and the “constant” between them is not needed.

The “ripple” of energy, demonstrated by Planck's constant, is known to quantum physicists as “photons”. We usually think of “photons” as carriers of light, but this is just one of their functions.

More importantly, when atoms absorb or release energy, it is transferred in the form of “photons”.

Researchers like Milo Wolf remind us that the only thing we know for sure about the term "photon" is that it is an impulse passing through the ether / zero point energy field.

It can now be seen that this information contains a geometric component, which suggests that the atoms must have the same geometry.

Another open anomaly demonstrating the presence of geometry at the quantum level is Bell's Non-Uniformity Theorem.

In this case, two photons are released in opposite directions. Each photon is emitted from a separate excited atomic structure. Both atomic structures are made of identical atoms, and both disintegrate at the same rate.

This allows two “paired” photons of the same energy quality to be simultaneously released in opposite directions. Both photons then pass through polarizing filters such as mirrors, which in theory should change the direction of travel.

If one mirror is at an angle of 45 o and the other at an angle of 30 o, it would be natural to expect that the angular rotations of the photons would be different.

However, when this experiment was performed, despite the difference in the angles of the mirrors, the photons simultaneously made the same angular rotation!

The degree of precision in the experiment is staggering, as Milo Wolff's book describes:

“In Elaine Aspect's most recent experiment, Delibard and Roger used 50 MHz acousto-optic switches to shift the polarizer sets during the flight of photons to completely eliminate any possibility of local influences from one detector to another ...

Bell's theorem and the results of the experiment indicate that parts of the universe are connected to each other at some internal level (that is, not obvious to us), and these connections are fundamental (quantum theory is fundamental).

How can we understand them? And although the problem was analyzed very deeply (Wheeler and Zurek, 1983; d'Espanya, 1983; Herbert, 1985; Stup, 1982; Bohm and Healy, 1984; Pagels, 1982; and others), no solution has been found.

The authors tend to agree with the following description of non-local connections:
1. They link events in separate locations without known fields or matter.
2. They do not weaken with distance; whether it's a million kilometers or a centimeter.
3. They seem to travel faster than the speed of light. "

It is undeniably a very perplexing phenomenon within the framework of science.

Bell's theorem says that energetically paired “photons” are actually held together by a single geometric force, namely a tetrahedron, which continues to expand (become larger) as photons separate.

As the geometry between them expands, the photons will continue to maintain the same angular phase position relative to each other.

The next point of research is the electromagnetic wave itself.

As most people know, an electromagnetic wave has two components, an electrostatic wave and a magnetic wave, that move together. Interestingly, the two waves are always perpendicular to each other.

To visualize what is happening, Johnson asks to take two pencils of the same length and set them perpendicular to each other; and the distance between them should be equal to the length of the pencil:

We can now connect each end of the upper pencil to each end of the lower pencil. By doing this, we get a four-sided object made up of equilateral triangles between two pencils, that is, a tetrahedron.

The same process can be done with an electromagnetic wave by taking the total height of the electrostatic or magnetic wave (which have the same height or amplitude) as the fundamental length, like the pencils in the drawing.

In the figure below, you can see that if we connect the lines using the same process, the electromagnetic wave is actually copying the “hidden” (potential) tetrahedron:

It is important to mention here that this secret has been repeatedly revealed by different thinkers only in order to again be forgotten by science.

Tom Bearden's work has convincingly shown that James Clerk Maxwell knew this when he wrote his complex "quaternion" equations.

The hidden tetrahedron is also observed in Walter Russell, and later in Buckminster Fuller. While making his discoveries, Johnson was unaware of previous breakthroughs.

The next point to consider is spin*. For many years physicists have known that energetic particles “spin” as they move.
* spin (spin, - rotation), the actual angular momentum of a microparticle, which has a quantum nature and is not associated with the motion of the particle as a whole; measured in units of the Planck constant and can be integer (0, 1, 2, ...) or half-integer (1/2, 3/2, ...)

For example, it appears that as they move in an atom, the "electrons" continuously make sharp 180 o turns or "half spins".

It is often observed that when moving "quarks" make "1/3" or "2/3" of a spin, which allowed Gell-Mann to organize their movements in a tetrahedron or other geometries.

None of the representatives of traditional science gave an adequate explanation of why this happens.

Johnson's model shows that the 180 o "spin" of the electron clouds is created by the motion of the octahedron.

It is important to realize that the 180 ° movement actually arises from two 90 ° turns of each octahedron.

To stay in the same position in the matrix of the surrounding geometry, the octahedron must "tilt back", that is, 180 o.

The tetrahedron, in order to stay in the same position, must complete either 120 o (1/3 spin) or 240 o (2/3 spin) rotation. The same process explains the riddle of the spiral motion of torsion waves. Wherever you are in the Universe, even “in a vacuum”, the ether will always pulsate in these geometric forms, forming a matrix.

Therefore, any momentum, moving in the ether, will pass along the edges of geometric “liquid crystals” in the ether.

Consequently, the spiraling motion of a torsion wave is created by a simple geometry through which the wave must pass when moving.

FINE STRUCTURE CONSTANT

The fine-structured constant is more difficult to visualize than the previous constants.

We've included this section for those who would like to see how far the “matrix” model goes. The fine structure constant is another aspect of quantum physics that some in mainstream science have never even heard of, perhaps because it is completely inexplicable to those who tend to believe in particle-based models.

Imagine that an electron cloud is like a flexible rubber ball, and each time a “photon” of energy is absorbed or released (known as pairing), the cloud stretches and flexes as if it were shaking.

The electron cloud will always “hit” in a fixed, exact proportional relationship to the size of the photon.

This means that larger photons will have larger “hits” on the electron cloud, smaller photons will have smaller “hits” on the electron cloud. This ratio remains constant regardless of the unit of measurement.

Like Planck's constant, the fine-structured constant is another “abstract” number. This means that we will receive the same proportion, no matter what units we measure it in.

This constant has been continuously studied through spectroscopic analysis, and in his book The strange theory of light and matter physicist Richard P. Feynman explained this mystery. (Remember that the word “pairing” means the union or separation of a photon and an electron.)

"There is a very deep and beautiful question related to the observed pairing constant e, - the amplitude of a real electron for the emission or absorption of a real photon. This simple experimentally determined number is close to 0,08542455 .
Physicists prefer to remember this number as the inverse of its square - about 137,03597 with uncertainty of the last two decimal places.
It remains a mystery today, although it was discovered more than 50 years ago.
You would immediately like to know where the pairing number came from: is it related to π or perhaps the base of natural logarithms?
Nobody knows this, this is one of the greatest mysteries of physics - a magic number that came to us and is not understandable to man.
We know what kind of dance should be practiced to very accurately measure this number, but we do not know what kind of dance should be performed on the computer to get this number without making a secret out of it. "

In Johnson's model, the fine-structure constant problem has a very simple academic solution.

As we said, a photon moves along two tetrahedrons connected together, and the electrostatic force inside the atom is supported by an octahedron.

We get the fine-structure constant by simply comparing the volumes of the tetrahedron and octahedron when they collide... Everything we do is divide the volume of the tetrahedron inscribed into the sphere by the volume of the octahedron inscribed in the sphere. We get the fine structure constant as the difference between the two. Some additional explanation is required to show how this is done.

Since the tetrahedron is completely triangular, no matter how it rotates, the three vertices of any of its faces will divide the circle into three equal portions of 120 ° each.

Therefore, to bring the tetrahedron into equilibrium with the geometry of the surrounding matrix, you need to rotate it only 120 o, so that it is in the same position as before.

This is easy to see if you are rendering a car with triangular wheels and you want it to shift so that the wheels look like they did before. To do this, each triangular wheel must turn exactly 120 o.

In the case of an octahedron, it always has to be turned upside down or 180 o to restore equilibrium.

If you liked the car analogy, then the wheels should be in the shape of a classic diamond.

To make the diamond look the same as at the beginning, you will have to turn it upside down, that is, 180 o.

The following quote from Johnson explains the fine-structure constant based on exactly this information:

“(If you) consider the static electric field as an octahedron and the dynamic magnetic field as a tetrahedron, then the geometric ratio (between them) is 180: 120.

If you think of them as spheres with volumes expressed in radians, simply divide the volumes by each other and you will get a fine structure constant. ”

The term "volume in radians" means that you calculate the volume of an object in terms of its radius, which is half the width of the object.

Interestingly, after Johnson showed that the fine-structure constant can be seen as the ratio between the octahedron and the tetrahedron, as energy moving from one to the other, Jerry Iuliano discovered that it can be seen as the “residual” energy that occurs when we squeeze sphere to cube or expand cube to sphere!

This change in expansion and contraction between two objects is known as “tiling,” and Iuliano's calculations are not hard to do, just no one thought of doing it before.

In Juliano's calculations, the volume of two objects does not change; both the cube and the sphere have volume 8π π 2.

If we compare them with each other, the difference is only in the amount of surface area. The additional surface area between the cube and the sphere is equal to the fine-structure constant.

You ask: "How can a fine-structure constant be both the ratio between the octahedron and the tetrahedron and the ratio between the cube and the sphere?"

This is the work of yet another aspect of the magic of "symmetry", where we see that different geometric shapes can have the same properties as they all nest in one another with perfect harmonic relationships.

The points of view of both Johnson and Juliano demonstrate that we are dealing with the work of geometrically structured energy in the atom.

It is also important to remember that Juliano's discoveries demonstrate the classical geometry of “squaring the circle”.

This position has long been a central element in the esoteric traditions of “sacred geometry,” as it was believed to show a balance between the physical world, represented by a square or cube, and the spiritual world, represented by a circle or sphere.

And now you can see that this is another example of “hidden knowledge”, encoded in a metaphor so that over time people will regain a true understanding of the secret science behind the metaphor.

They knew that until we discovered the fine-structured constant, we would not understand what we were observing. That is why this ancient knowledge was preserved - to show us the key.

And the key is that sacred geometry has always been present in quantum reality; it has simply remained unexplained to date, as conventional science continues to be shackled by old-fashioned particle models.

In this model, you no longer need to constrain atoms to a certain size; they are able to expand and maintain the same properties.

Once we understand what is happening in the quantum realm, we can create ultra-strong and ultra-light materials, because we now know the exact geometric arrangements that force the atoms to bond more efficiently.

The pieces of the wreckage at Roswell were said to be incredibly light yet so strong that they could not be cut, burned or destroyed. It is these materials that we will be able to create once we fully understand the new quantum physics.

We remember that quasicrystals they store heat very well, they often do not conduct electricity, even if the metals in their composition are naturally good conductors.

Likewise, microclusters prevent magnetic fields from penetrating into the clusters themselves.

Johnson's physics claims that such a geometrically perfect structure has a perfect connection, so neither thermal nor electromagnetic energy can pass through it. The internal geometry is so compact and precise that there is literally no “room” for the current to move between molecules.