4.3 Finance reform M.M. Speransky

4.1 Education of the Ministry of Finance

Emperor Alexander I inherited a heavy financial inheritance from his predecessors: the total amount of internal and external debts plus banknotes was approximately 408 million rubles. - a figure equal to the sum of the then state revenues for four years. Exceptionally favorable circumstances were needed, as well as knowledgeable and honest people in order to overcome the existing financial difficulties.

To this end, in 1802-1811. the reform of the supreme governing bodies was carried out. Initially, on September 8, 1802, eight ministries (military ground forces, sea forces, foreign affairs, justice, internal affairs, finance, commerce, public education) were created to replace the old Peter's colleges, later their number increased to 12.

The introductory part of the Manifesto of the Emperor of the Russian Empire Alexander I "On the Establishment of Ministries" determined the need to reform the state apparatus in order to strengthen control over the revenues and expenditures of the state budget.

The fifth point of this manifesto directly regulated the activities of the Ministry of Finance and its head. The Minister of Finance was charged with the responsibility of annually at the beginning of October to provide a detailed plan of state revenues and expenditures for the next year.

In the course of the implementation of this manifesto, all responsibility for the cases being solved fell solely on the ministers, which was more convenient for management. But at the same time, the bureaucratic essence of the state apparatus has grown.

In the 18th century. the organization of financial control did not achieve serious success: the names were changed, the functions were divided, but the lack of independence of the control bodies hampered their development. In continuation of the reform of government bodies, the Highest Manifesto of July 25, 1810. Emperor Alexander I establishes the Main Department for the Audit of State Accounts, headed by the State Comptroller. Baron Baltazar Kampenhausen became the first State Comptroller in the history of Russia. As a result of this transformation, state control became essentially independent. The management of the audit of government accounts was given the broadest authority. One of his duties was "to see the benefits acquired by the treasury in various operations." These were the sprouts of performance auditing. The introduction of the Office of the Comptroller and the establishment of a special independent agency have resulted in positive changes. The previously existing departmental control was retained, but lost its independent significance. However, this situation did not last long; by the end of the reign of Alexander I, many reformist changes were brought to naught. Including the most important principle of financial control - to carry out an audit according to primary documents, which undoubtedly made it possible for officials to hide the true state of affairs.

4.2 Performance results of the first Russian ministers

According to the Tsar's Manifesto of September 8, ministries, including finance, were created to replace the collegia, and Alexei Ivanovich Vasiliev, who at that time had extensive experience in financial administration, was appointed its first head.

He was entrusted with major work - drawing up the state salary book, since the state office (financial department) did not have accurate information about income and expenses. With the destruction of the State College, Vasiliev was appointed in 1781. on the newly established expedition for the audit of state accounting. Under Paul I, he was appointed State Treasurer (Finance Minister), in this position from 1796 to 1800. in charge of the receipt and distribution of treasury taxes and made an estimate. Vasiliev introduced significant improvements in bookkeeping, which, under his predecessors, was in an extremely unsatisfactory state. November 22, 1800 he was dismissed, but with the accession to the throne of Alexander I in 1801. again appointed State Treasurer.

With the formation of the Ministry of Finance, a new procedure for drawing up the list (budget) of income and expenses for the coming year was established. The content of the painting was considered a state secret and was hidden even from the Senate. When A.I. Vasiliev presented the first report on his actions for 1802. and the Senate demanded from him information about state revenues and expenditures, the minister explained that according to the long-accepted rule and use, the amount of state revenues and expenditures was considered a state secret. According to this order, the budget until 1806. was considered in the Committee of Ministers in the presence of the emperor, then - in the unofficial financial committee, and only since 1810. its consideration was entrusted to the State Council.

Both before and during the period when the ministry was ruled by A.I. Vasiliev, there was no elementary order in public finances. So, in 1802. a deficit of 2 million rubles was assumed. But the execution of the painting did not correspond to the estimate: the overspending was expressed in the amount of 26 million rubles, and the income turned out to be higher than the estimated one by 30 million rubles. Thus, there was even a slight excess of income over expenses, but the surplus received was spent without any system or plan. Murals for 1803 and 1804 were reduced without a deficit, but in the second of them this was achieved by issuing banknotes for 3.5 million rubles. and the transfer of certain expenses from the Treasury accounts to the amounts returned from the Assignment Bank. Estimates for 1805, 1806 and 1807 were procured with a significant deficit, which was covered by amounts from the Assignment Bank, loan bank and other sources. The discrepancy between the estimated assumptions and the execution of the painting was observed in subsequent years. In 1805. revenues were planned to be 102 million rubles, but actually received 147 million rubles, expenses - 112 million rubles, in reality 125 million rubles were spent.

However, it should be noted that two important measures are associated with Vasiliev's tenure as finance minister. In 1802. received the approval of the Charter on state forests, which made significant improvements in the procedure for managing forest property. In 1806. The Mining Regulation, developed under the direct supervision of Vasiliev, received the force of law, which, with minor changes, served as the basis for mining legislation for a long time. In addition, he merged the Auxiliary Bank for the Nobility with the Loan Bank, and allowed the establishment of private banks in the Livonian and Estland provinces.

However, these measures did not lead to any significant improvement in public finances in general. As he ran the ministry at a time when ever-increasing military spending was shaking up Russian finances, Vasiliev left the treasury in a dire state.

Simultaneously with the appointment of Vasiliev as Minister of Finance, Fyodor Aleksandrovich Golubtsov took the place of the State Treasurer. After Vasiliev's death, he took the post of Minister of Finance and stayed in this position until January 1, 1810.

The economic situation in Russia during his leadership of the ministry was seriously upset due to wars and the domination of the continental system, and domestic finances were also not in the best position. According to a preliminary estimate for 1808. the deficit was equal to 46 million rubles, but then, by adding any extraordinary revenues, the estimate was reduced to an excess of revenues over expenditures of 2 million rubles. In reality, the war with Sweden caused a deficit of more than 120 million rubles. The same happened with the estimate for 1809, when instead of the expected excess of income over expenses of 3 million rubles. the result was a deficit of more than 140 million rubles, and this deficit was higher than the then annual income of the state.

Instead of streamlining finances to cover the existing deficit, Golubtsov resorted to various types of loans. Moreover, for the first time, government debt securities appeared on the domestic Russian market. The conditions for their issue and the basic rules were determined by the Imperial Decree of March 25, 1809, according to which the amount of income was determined at 6% per annum and plus 1% grace (bonus). The yields on government securities were higher than those provided by government credit institutions. However, the latter had deeper traditions, enjoyed the confidence of depositors, an extensive network made them accessible and convenient for the general public, and the population preferred to make contributions to the safe and loan offices, as well as to the Orders of public charity, although only 5% of the annual income was paid there. Therefore, for the successful placement of securities, its owners were provided with certain benefits. So, bonds could be accepted as a pledge for all contracts and lease payments, in a certain part they could be accepted in payment of government fees and customs duties. Interest and grace on bonds were paid annually in advance for the year. However, the first attempt had an insignificant effect: in two years, bonds were sold only for 3.3 million rubles.

Despite certain difficulties associated with the formation of the market for state debt obligations, later in the period from 1809 to 1816. there were issued securities in the amount of 354 million rubles. The successful placement of the first loans marked the beginning of the regular use of this source of financing for the state treasury. However, until the middle of the XIX century. domestic government loans covered only about 10% of the public debt, the rest was received by the treasury through the placement of Russian loans abroad, as well as through the annual issue of paper money, the amount of which by 1810. increased to 577 million rubles.

Tax system for 1801-1810 did not change at all: the main role in the structure of income was played by salary and drinking fees, which accounted for up to 60-70% of all incomes, others remained 30-40%. During this time, the general nature of the cost estimates did not change either: about half of the costs fell on the War and Naval Ministries; about 12% went to finance and the state economy; to the Highest Yard - about 10%; the same amount for the administration and the court, as well as for the repayment of state debts, but since these debts were the result of predominantly military expenditures, the state's military expenditures accounted for 60% of the total expenditure estimate, while public education accounted for 1-2%.

4.3. Finance reform M.M. Speransky

At the beginning of the XIX century. The government's favorite means of covering deficits was the issue of banknotes, which for a long time it did not want to recognize the state debt. Already by 1804. they increased (since 1801) by 30 million rubles, and the total amount reached 260.5 million rubles. By 1810. they were released for another 272.5 million rubles. Corresponding to the increase in the number of bank notes, their price fell. In 1805. the banknote ruble cost 77 kopecks. silver, then its price, falling in subsequent years, reached in 1809. up to 44.5 kopecks, and in December 1810. - even up to 20 kopecks, and in different parts of Russia the exchange rate of the banknote ruble was different.

At that time, the financial economy and, in particular, the account of public debts were conducted in a disorderly manner. Reports on the execution of budget plans were submitted with a great delay: for example, the report for 1809. was presented only in 1816, the report for 1811. - in 1821. This state of public finances required radical reforms, and their plan was drawn up by Speransky in 1810.

Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky is a famous statesman. The son of a priest, born on January 1, 1772, he studied at the Vladimir seminary, then at the main seminary at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in St. Petersburg, where, after completing the course, he was appointed teacher of mathematics, physics and eloquence, and then philosophy. At the same time, Speransky became the home secretary of Prince Alexei Borisovich Kurakin, settled in his house, where he became close to the tutor Brueckner, a zealous follower of the views of Voltaire and the encyclopedists of that time. Upon the accession to the throne of Paul I, Prince Kurakin became prosecutor general, in 1797. Speransky entered the service in his office and continued to serve there and under his three successors. Soon after the accession to the throne of Emperor Alexander I, Speransky received the title of Secretary of State and in 1802. transferred to the service in the Ministry of Internal Affairs.

With a preliminary survey of the financial situation in 1810. a deficit of 105 million rubles was opened, and Speransky was instructed to draw up a solid financial plan. Professor Balugyansky wrote an extensive note, which Speransky revised and supplemented. It underwent a joint discussion with the participation of Potocki, Mordvinov, Kochubei, Kampenhausen, and then in a special committee convened by Finance Minister Guriev. The finance plan prepared in this way was presented by Alexander I to the chairman of the State Council on the day of its opening - January 1, 1810.

The main idea of \u200b\u200bSperansky's financial reform was that any financial plan that offered easy ways and did not help in spending was an obvious deception, leading the state to destruction. Therefore, he offered "strong measures and important donations." His plan consisted of two parts: the first related to 1810, the second - to subsequent years. Speransky considered the immediate task of the financial management: to stop issuing banknotes; cuts in budget spending; establishing better control over government spending; introduction of new taxes.

In pursuance of Speransky's plan, the Manifesto on February 2, 1810. recognized the difficult financial situation of the country and declared banknotes to be a public debt - all the country's wealth should serve as their security, their new issue was stopped, and the activities of the banknote bank were limited only to the exchange of old banknotes for new ones. On the other hand, the manifesto promised cost cuts in 1810. by 20 million rubles, so that the reduction would then continue throughout the year, if the opportunity presents itself. The sums received from spending cuts should be used to pay government debts. All extraordinary expenses must go through the Council of State. Then the per capita tax increased, as well as the salaries and fees from the townspeople and merchants, the price of salt increased (from 40 kopecks per pood to 1 ruble), and a tax was introduced on all land at 50 kopecks. from the revision of the soul of this estate, the price of stamped paper increased, customs duties increased, etc. It was also stated that the painting for 1811. "Will be announced well in advance this year." Funds for the redemption of banknotes were supposed to be obtained through the sale of unpopulated state land and an internal loan. This financial plan was approved and a commission was formed to pay off government debts.

In reality, in 1810, instead of reducing expenses, they spent 241 million rubles, which caused a deficit, to cover which they released 43 million rubles. banknotes. Internal loan of 1810 gave 13 million rubles. bank notes and banknotes, state property was sold for only 20% of the estimated amount, which, according to Speransky, was due to the lack of proper management of them. The debt repayment commission, established in 1810, did not live up to expectations, only 5 million rubles were paid off; the monetary system was not ordered. The most successful measure, which did not cause displeasure against Speransky, was the introduction in 1810. protective customs tariff, which legalized the protectionism of the beginning of the reign of Alexander I (instead of the partial prohibitive tariffs of 1804-1805). The new tariff was greeted sympathetically in Russia, but angered Napoleon as a clear deviation from the continental system. The tariff of 1810, having given a strong impetus to the development of the Russian factory industry, had a positive effect on the improvement of the exchange rate. This was manifested in a gradual but steady increase in the value of the banknote ruble: in January 1811. it cost 19.8 kopecks. silver, and in December - already 29.7 kopecks. This growth continued until September 1812, when the banknote ruble was already worth 64 kopecks, after which its price dropped again, dropping to 42 kopecks in December.

No more fortunate was the second part of Speransky's plan, which was intended to streamline the revenues and expenditures of the state for the future, showing how exemplary estimates should be drawn up. The rules regarding this were issued on August 29, 1810; they introduced greater order to bookkeeping, gave a solid foundation for reporting and verification of financial management, but did not help to avoid in 1810. deficit. The fact is that Speransky's activities in the financial sector met with strong opposition from the then Minister of Finance D.A. Guriev, who systematically slowed down their implementation, wanting to prove the impracticality of the reforms. According to the journal of the State Council dated August 29, 1810, Guriev was supposed to make up for 1811. "Model" estimate, but in December of this year he reported to the State Council that he could not draw up such an estimate, since the ministries had not yet been finally formed and therefore did not draw up private estimates. Based on this, Guriev made an estimate according to the old model, and according to it, a deficit of 44.8 million rubles was foreseen. The State Council even increased this deficit, finding that it needed to add another 4.3 million rubles. on two articles. But to avoid a deficit, the Council decided to add revenues on various items. As a result, the deficit estimate turned out to be deficit-free, with a balance of 6.8 million rubles. But reality destroyed this illusion, and 1811. ended with a deficit, which was only slightly less than originally proposed - 40.4 million rubles. To cover the deficit, bank notes were issued, which was a direct violation of Speransky's plan.

Dissatisfaction with Speransky grew, but his plan had not yet been outright abandoned; for 1811. For example, left in force all the taxes of 1810, which were declared temporary, with the exception of the collection from the landowners' lands. The duty on salt was increased and the number of payers increased according to the new census.

4.4 Reasons for failure of reform implementation

After Speransky's "Plan of Finance" was adopted, it seemed that Russia was also entering a new era of financial management. But it only seemed or could seem: the order announced by the Manifesto on February 2, 1810 did not last long and therefore did not have time to give the results that could be expected from it. A little over two years after the financial plan was drawn up, Speransky was removed from affairs, and the government refused to further implement his project. But even during these two years, far from all that was planned has been accomplished. Opposition from court nobility circles, opposition from Finance Minister Guriev, general discontent with new taxes, new military difficulties - all this upset Speransky's reform and weakened its significance.

Report on the execution of the painting in 1812. showed that even the terrible events of 1812. did not teach the ruling bureaucracy to manage finances. Additionally, during the war, banknotes worth 64.5 million rubles were issued.

In addition to the general list for the Minister of Finance for 1812, a separate list was drawn up for the debt settlement commission, and its revenues were separated from the revenues of the state treasury. Such income was calculated up to 72.4 million rubles; for their replenishment, surcharges were made in taxes and various duties, new duties were introduced, etc. The Commission for the Repayment of Public Debts acted independently and separately from the Ministry of Finance, but it could not fulfill its appointment, and the public debt in 1812. not only did not decrease, but even increased. A number of other measures taken at the beginning of 1812 did not bring significant benefits to the state economy. - extension of the period of validity of the regulation on foreign trade in 1811. for 1812, an increase in some import duties, etc.

The removal of the Speransky department, which followed on March 17, 1812, was an undoubted blow to public finances. The "Plan of Finance" drawn up by him was left without further execution, and Guriev was given freedom of action. He, who considered the ideas of Speransky's reform partly true and indisputable, partly impracticable and arbitrary, already submitted a note to Alexander I on March 20. In this note, Guryev noted that it was a big mistake on the part of the government to solemnly acknowledge its debts in the Manifesto on February 2, 1810. and assigning banknotes to them, insisting that they do not have any of the properties of actual debt. For his part, he proposed declaring banknotes as signs of the state coin.

The first blow to Speransky's plan was a decree on April 3, 1812. "On the union of the State Council of the departments of laws and state economy and on the rights of these during the Imperial absence from the capital." After this decree, the chairman of the department of state economy N.S. Mordvinov, who advocated Speransky's reforms, resigned, which was a serious loss for public finances, but freed Guryev from a knowledgeable and authoritative opponent. In addition, by decree of April 3, all financial measures taken after 1810 were to be reviewed. Already on April 9, a decree appears that returns the value of the counting monetary unit to the banknotes, while retaining, however, the previous coin unit, determined by the Manifesto of June 20, 1810. For payments to the treasury, the decree of April 9 established a temporary compulsory exchange rate for banknotes, only in some cases giving payers the freedom to choose between silver and banknotes when paying government fees. With regard to private transactions, the decree gave the contracting parties more leeway. As a result, two independent types of money appeared - metal and paper, the value ratio of which was established not by law, but by an agreement of individuals, and at the same time almost for each transaction separately; which is why terrible fluctuations in the exchange rate of banknotes followed.

One of the main provisions of Speransky's "Plan of Finance" - the reduction in the amount of paper money - was completely destroyed. Attempts undertaken by Guryev to stabilize the exchange rate of the banknote ruble by removing them from circulation (300 million rubles) were not crowned with success. The exchange rate of banknotes rose slightly, trade turnover was insignificant and continued to fall, industry did not develop, money from the valuable metal floated abroad, and the budget deficit did not decrease. For a ruble in silver they gave 4 rubles in bank notes.

During the first 11 years of the reign of Alexander 1, the financial economy did not come out of a state of constant instability, neither the system of taxes (indirect ones still prevailed over direct ones), nor the system of exploitation of state property, nor the nature of expenditure and income estimates, nor methods of covering deficits ... All this led to the fact that Russia met the war of 1812. unprepared financially, and only new economic resources opened up thanks to the beginning of the transition to a capitalist economy helped the country to cope with the difficulties of the war.

According to the press service of the Ministry of Defense Russian Federation, December 18, 2018 in Moscow under the leadership of the President of Russia - Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces Vladimir Putin expanded meeting of the Collegium of the Ministry of Defense.

The work of the expanded Collegium was attended by the commanders-in-chief of the services and the commanders of the branches of the armed forces, the heads of the central bodies of military command, the commanders of the military districts, fleets, formations and individual formations of the Armed Forces of our country.

The Supreme Commander-in-Chief assessed the progress of military development and the activities of the Armed Forces in 2018, identified the main directions of their further development (text of the speech). The Minister of Defense of Russia, General of the Army Sergei Shoigu made a report at the meeting of the Collegium.

Theses of the report of the Minister of Defense of the Russian Federation, General of the Army S.K. Shoigu at an expanded meeting of the Collegium of the Russian Ministry of Defense:

The past year was marked by a further complication of the military-political situation in the world. The military build-up of the US and NATO continues.

Since June 2018, to achieve superiority in outer space, the United States has begun to create a new type of military force - the space forces. Since August, the US Navy's second operational fleet has been recreated. Its main task will be to expand the American military presence in the Arctic.

A decision was made to form two new commands by 2022 - the joint command of the NATO Allied Forces "Atlantic" and the joint command of the rear. This will allow the alliance to ensure the transfer of troops from the United States to Europe and their accelerated deployment near Russian borders.

In 2019, the main and alternate transport routes will be determined. By 2020, a mechanism for coordinating cross-border transfers has been formed, and the time required for obtaining the necessary permits will be reduced from 15 to 5 days.

This year, the United States has already spent six billion three hundred million dollars on work to develop a forward-based system, mainly in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe.

In Norway, 60 kilometers from the Russian border construction of infrastructure for the deployment of a new radar "Globus-3"... This year, the number of the US Marine Corps deployed in Norway has doubled to 700 people.

Poland agreed to deploy an armored division of the US ground forces on its territory and allocate up to two billion dollars to create infrastructure for it.

Instead of maintaining strategic stability, the United States plans to withdraw from the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty.

The US military budget next year will increase from seven hundred and seven to a record seven hundred twenty-five and a half billion dollars, which is comparable to the combined annual military budget of all countries of the world.

NATO countries bring their share in the alliance budget to 2% of national GDP.

They have more than doubled the number of exercises compared to last year.

Increasingly, they are attracting non-NATO states - Georgia, Ukraine, Sweden and Finland.

The number of reconnaissance flights in the West and South-West directions increased by 10%. We are closely monitoring the situation. Not a single event in the military activity of foreign states was left without attention. The results of each of them are analyzed and taken into account in the combat training of the troops.

A modern, mobile, compact and efficient Russian army, without increasing its size and increasing the military budget, is ready to counter existing and future threats.

Comrade Supreme Commander, in accordance with the plans approved by you, the quality of the Armed Forces is improving.

A program is being planned to recruit the Armed Forces with contract servicemen. By the end of 2025, their number will reach 475,600 military personnel, while the need for conscription of citizens for military service will be reduced proportionally to 220,000.

The officer corps of the Armed Forces is staffed with trained professional personnel. All commanders of military districts, combined arms armies, air force and air defense armies, division commanders, and 96% of commanders of combined arms brigades and regiments have combat experience.

Strategic nuclear forces are maintained at a level that allows guaranteed nuclear deterrence. The task set in 2017 to bring the Strategic Nuclear Forces to the modern level is 82% completed. In the current year, another missile regiment, equipped with the Yars mobile ground-based missile system, has taken up combat duty. The aviation strategic nuclear forces were replenished with modernized aircraft - one Tu-160 and four Tu-95ms.

Comrade Supreme Commander-in-Chief, your order to confirm the possibility of salvo launches from strategic missile submarines and Tu-160 missile carriers has been fulfilled.

In May of this year, the strategic missile submarine Yuri Dolgoruky carried out a successful salvo launch of four Bulava ballistic missiles at the Kura training ground in Kamchatka. This is the first time that such a number of missiles have been fired on the submarine cruisers of this project. In November, after modernization, the strategic missile carrier Tu-160 successfully launched 12 XA-101 air-launched cruise missiles at the Pemboy training ground, located beyond the Arctic Circle.

In contrast to the US deployment of a global missile defense system, the Armed Forces are increasing their strike potential. High-precision hypersonic air-missile systems "Dagger" are on experimental combat duty... They performed 89 patrol flights in the waters of the Black and Caspian Seas.

Since December 1, 2018, the Peresvet laser combat complex has been put on experimental combat duty. Throw tests of the Sarmat strategic intercontinental ballistic missile complex were successfully carried out. In 2019, the first missile regiment, armed with a strategic missile system with the Avangard gliding cruise unit, will take over on combat duty. All these means will ensure a guaranteed penetration of the most modern anti-missile system. In addition, tests have begun on the lead submarine of the Borey-A project, which is distinguished by increased stealth and reliability in comparison with foreign counterparts.

As for the general forces. The task of increasing the level of modern weapons in the Ground Forces this year has been exceeded by 2.3%. This indicator has been increased to 48.3%. The troops received 2,200 new and modernized weapons, and 10 formations and military units were formed.

In the interests of the Aerospace Forces, 126 modern aircraft and helicopters, nine spacecraft, 120 units of air defense equipment were delivered in 2018. The share of modern weapons in the Air Force has reached 64%, and in general in the Aerospace Forces it has been brought up to the planned figure for this year - 74%. The equipment of the Navy with new weapons and equipment has exceeded the planned indicators and is 62.3%. The combat strength received 14 ships and combat boats, as well as 11 support vessels, four coastal missile systems "Bal" and "Bastion".

In 2018, the Airborne Forces received over 300 basic types of weapons, military and special equipment and over 11,000 sets of airborne personnel, weapons and cargo. The share of modern weapons and equipment in the Airborne Forces was the planned 63.7%.

The creation of medium-range unmanned reconnaissance strike systems is nearing completion. From next year they will begin to enter the troops. Every year, as part of the fulfillment of the state defense order, the troops receive more than 300 short-range and short-range aircraft. Their number in the Armed Forces exceeded 2,100 units.

The automated control system of the Armed Forces is being improved as a priority. With a view to the balanced development of all its components, a comprehensive target program is being implemented. It made it possible for the first time to create all the elements of a promising automated control system on the domestic software and hardware platform. Due to the supply of more than 31,000 pieces of communication equipment to the Armed Forces this year, the level of equipment with modern command and control facilities has increased in the troops to the planned rate of 66%.

In general, all the measures provided for by the plan of activities of the Ministry of Defense and the state defense order for 2018 have been completed. We adhere to the established indicators for equipping the Armed Forces, their maintenance and the allocation of the necessary funds for R&D.

For some nomenclatures of weapons, such as aircraft and helicopters, we are reaching targets. In this regard, the diversification tasks set by you are becoming especially urgent.

To a large extent, the effectiveness of the execution of the state defense order was facilitated by the creation, on your instructions, of a unified information system for settlements for the state defense order, within the framework of which a method of keeping separate accounting of financial and economic activities was developed and implemented this year. It allows you to receive and process reports of organizations executing the state defense order separately for state assignments and for other economic activities. The set of measures taken will allow monitoring the pricing of products supplied under the state defense order.

The Armed Forces, receiving new and modernized models of weapons and equipment on a regular basis, continued their development and intensive combat training. Six surprise complex checks of combat readiness were carried out with the participation of all military districts, branches and arms of the Armed Forces.

The largest troop training event in history modern Russia were the maneuvers "Vostok-2018". They were held in an international format, with the involvement of military formations of the People's Liberation Army of China and the Armed Forces of Mongolia. In terms of the number of troops, the number of weapons and military equipment, this event is comparable to the Zapad-81 maneuvers, and in terms of the territorial scope and scale of regroupings, such events were not carried out even in Soviet times.

In 2018, the Navy conducted the first major naval exercise in the eastern Mediterranean. The grouping of 28 warships and vessels, as well as 36 aircrafts of naval aviation has shown the ability to effectively perform the assigned tasks to protect the national interests of the Russian Federation in the Mediterranean Sea. The level of field, air, and naval training of personnel has increased. In just a year, the Armed Forces conducted over 18,000 exercises and trainings of various levels. The intensity of interspecies training increased by 16%, and the number of bilateral exercises increased by 20%.

Every year the interest of foreign countries in the International Army Games, which has become the most important component of combat training, is growing. Competitions and games were held in seven countries: Russia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, China, Kazakhstan, for the first time in Armenia and Iran. They were attended by 189 teams, which is 4,700 participants from 32 states. The games along with the international military-technical forum "Army" are also a good demonstration of the capabilities and advantages of domestic weapons over foreign counterparts. They make a significant contribution to filling the export portfolio of orders for Russian military equipment.

Comrade Supreme Commander!

In December last year, the operation of the Armed Forces in Syria was completed. 96% of its territory has been liberated from terrorist groups. This was reported in detail at the summing up of the operation.

In accordance with your instructions, the withdrawal of the main group from Syria has been completed. Equipment and weapons that are not part of our bases in Khmeimim and Tartus have been withdrawn to Russian territory. The numerical strength of the group has been reduced and brought to the established state, which is sufficient to complete the tasks. Their composition is typical, and the number is comparable to our military bases operating in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Armenia.

In addition, the assigned tasks are performed by military advisers, special operations forces, servicemen of the Center for the Reconciliation of Warring Parties and the military police. Aviation flights were reduced from 100-110 per day to 2-4 sorties per week, mainly for additional reconnaissance of the situation.

The most important result achieved in the spring and summer of 2018 was the transfer to the control of the Syrian government army without the use of force in the suburbs of Damascus, eastern Ghouta, eastern Kalamoun and Yarmouk, the northern regions of Homs, as well as the provinces of Essaweida, Daria and Al-Quneitra. This became possible thanks to the active work of the Russian Center for the reconciliation of the warring parties with the field commanders, the opposition and the government of Syria.

In the conditions of stabilization of the situation in the republic, the implementation of a large-scale program for the restoration of peaceful life and the return of refugees began. To coordinate this work in Russia, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, interagency coordination headquarters have been created, in cooperation with authorized international organizations, they resolve issues on the return of refugees and providing everything necessary. Since July 18 this year, 68,230 people have already returned to Syrian soil from these countries. Since 2015, more than 1.5 million refugees and internally displaced persons have returned to their places of former residence.

This year, the Russian Center for the Reconciliation of Warring Parties has provided 86 humanitarian convoys of the United Nations and various international organizations, conducted 294 humanitarian actions, provided 37,000 people with medical assistance, provided food for 163,000 civilians.

The most important stage in the settlement of the conflict is the organization of a political dialogue. Talks in the Astana format gave it maximum acceleration. The Congress of the Syrian National Dialogue was successfully held in January in the city of Sochi, which marked the beginning of the formation of the constitutional committee. Thus, the political conditions are created to preserve the state integrity of the Syrian Arab Republic. The combat experience gained in Syria has been generalized and is being actively introduced into the educational process of [military] universities. The transition to electronic media has been completed in all military educational institutions - there are 12,000 electronic teaching aids. As a result of the introduction of modern forms of education, the general level of training of cadets is significantly increased. For five years, they have been showing high achievements in the course of international Olympiads.

The "Geographic Dictation" action contributes to the development of horizons. More than 150,000 people from the Armed Forces took part in it. From this year, the military-historical dictation began. About 50,000 servicemen were already involved in it.

This year completed the restoration of the military education system, which allowed the universities of the Ministry of Defense to conduct a full-fledged graduation. More than 12,000 officers have been sent to the Armed Forces. All graduates are assigned to military positions in accordance with the specialties received, each has an experienced mentor.

The prestige of military education among young people is increasing. The competition for the first courses of our universities this year reached up to 8 people, and in a number of educational institutions - up to 20 people per place. Students of 81 states study at the universities of the Ministry of Defense, which exceeds the indicators of the Soviet era. In accordance with your instructions, Mr President, the military training of 60,000 students is being carried out in 93 military training centers and universities without interrupting their studies.

The educational and material base of pre-university educational organizations is actively developing. A new multifunctional building with a total area of \u200b\u200b52,000 square meters, equipped with modern teaching and laboratory equipment, was commissioned at the Nakhimov Naval School. In total, 15 pre-university educational organizations have been created since 2013, including four Suvorov military schools, three Presidential cadet schools, three branches of the Nakhimov naval school, two cadet corps and three schools for gifted children. For the first time, open cadet games were held with great success, and from next year they will acquire an international scale.

Scientific companies are a reliable source for increasing the military scientific potential of the Armed Forces. Since their inception, 459 military personnel have become officers. In total, 1,285 developments were introduced, 110 inventions were registered. To carry out innovative scientific research, the Ministry of Defense has created a military technopolis "ERA". There are 18 laboratories deployed in it, and 600 units of unique equipment have been supplied to equip them. Representatives of 32 leading industrial enterprises and scientific organizations, as well as operators of four newly created scientific companies, are involved in the research. The implementation of this project will contribute to the development of fundamental and applied science, as well as the creation of high-tech production.

Innovative approaches are being implemented in the Effective Army program. Over the past five years, we have come to cover the deficit of basic indicators for items of material, technical and utilities in the face of rising prices for these services. At the same time, within the framework of the measures taken, the Ministry of Defense does not request additional funds to increase military spending.

The annual effect of the work of the restored regular military repair bodies amounts to about 1 billion rubles in budget savings. The installation of 730 access control and food order control systems in canteens of military units gave an economic effect of about 3 billion rubles. At the same time, in all military camps, the installation and equipment of 111,000 metering devices for communal resources saved 5,300 million rubles.

At present, a pilot project is being developed in cooperation with NOVATEK to convert two boiler houses in the Murmansk region to liquefied natural gas. Based on its results, a program will be developed to re-equip all boiler houses operating on diesel fuel and on naval fuel oil. The economic effect from one such boiler house will amount to 10-12 million rubles annually, while we have 3,921 such boiler houses.

The repair shops restored at the arsenals this year alone returned 550,000 missiles and ammunition to service. Their purchase would have cost the budget 63 billion rubles. Since 2016, about 590,000 pieces of new modern ammunition closures have been purchased and delivered to arsenals. This allowed to save 1,400 million rubles annually.

In order to reduce the cost of maintaining property not used by the Armed Forces, it is transferred to the ownership of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. Since 2013, 3,210 houses, 8,144 housing and utilities and gas facilities, 1,482 social facilities and 16,565 industrial facilities have been transferred. The total economic effect is 9,300 million rubles.

The main result of the change in the functioning of the military construction complex was the acceleration of the pace of construction work on the construction of special housing and infrastructure facilities. This made it possible to achieve synchronization and creation of infrastructure with the timing of the weapons and military equipment entering the troops.

In the current year, work has been completed on the construction, reconstruction and overhaul of 3,573 buildings and structures with a total area of \u200b\u200b3,600,000 m². Compared to last year, the pace of construction associated with the commissioning of buildings and structures increased by 6% with the same amount of funding. This is achieved through the use of standard and modern technological projects. As a result, the cost of building one square meter of facilities of the Ministry of Defense does not exceed 32,000 rubles, which is lower than in the country as a whole. One ruble invested accounts for one ruble 40 kopecks of fixed assets being introduced.

The main part of the work on the reconstruction of the airfield network is coming to an end. More than 3,700,000 square meters of artificial airfields have been laid at 19 airfields.

We are completing the equipping of missile brigades armed with Iskander-M missile systems. Between 2013 and 2018, 458 buildings and structures were built for 10 missile brigades. All Iskander-M systems supplied to the troops are kept in standard conditions and are ready for use

In order to improve and optimize storage sites for weapons, missiles and ammunition, 366 of 580 storage facilities were built, including 221 this year. This will allow storing 218,000 tons of ammunition in them. The construction of storage facilities will be completed in 2019.

The construction of infrastructure for the mobile and silo-based Yars missile systems entering the strategic missile forces is actively continuing. Combat starting positions for 6 missile regiments have been fully commissioned, and 7 missile regiments have been equipped with places for combat duty. This year, the first pilot production and logistics complex "Nara" began to operate, about 2,000 units of equipment and about 18,000 tons of material resources were transferred to its funds, which made it possible to disband 4 out of 27 unpromising, outdated bases and warehouses. Next year, the construction of two more production and logistics complexes in Sevastopol and Arkhangelsk will begin by attracting private investment on the basis of concession agreements.

Oil companies have commissioned 12 fuel filling complexes at the airfields of the Armed Forces, and the construction of three more is nearing completion. Rosneft and LUKOIL joined this project. In 2019, they will begin construction of 12 complexes. The total investment in this project from the oil companies has already amounted to about 17 billion rubles.

In the course of creating the infrastructure in the Arctic, the construction of 20 facilities of the starting minimum was completed to resume flights at the Severomorsk-1 airfield. It has reconstructed the runway, which is equipped with modern radio and lighting equipment for flights. On the island of Alexandra Land, the construction of 59 buildings and structures for a military city for a radar department and an aviation guidance point is nearing completion.

Reconstruction of the Temp airfield on Kotelny Island continues.

The construction of a block-modular campus in the village of Tiksi has begun to accommodate the units of the Third Air Defense Division of the Northern Fleet, which is being formed next year.

In 2019, we will complete the creation of infrastructure for the deployment of air defense radar units and aviation guidance points on the islands of Sredniy, Wrangel and Cape Schmidt.

The Armed Forces are completing the elimination of environmental damage in the Arctic in the territories where troops are stationed. In total, since 2015, the efforts of environmental departments have cleared 104,000 km² of territory. Collected 18,572 tons of scrap metal, 16,000 tons exported. Remaining to clear 9,000km² , that is, about 9% of the territory.

In accordance with your, Vladimir Vladimirovich, instructions given at an expanded meeting of the Defense Ministry collegium last year, work was carried out together with the heads of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation to address social issues of servicemen and their families.

It resulted in a 97% decrease in queues for preschool institutions and a decrease by almost 99% in the number of military families in need of employment; in 80 constituent entities of the Russian Federation this issue has been resolved in full.

In the republics of Dagestan, North Ossetia-Alania and the Sakhalin region, 202 children are left without places in kindergartens. At the same time, the Ministry of Defense has fully implemented the decision of the Government of the Russian Federation to transfer 467 kindergartens to the jurisdiction of local self-government bodies.

Plans to provide servicemen with permanent housing have been fully implemented. During the current year, 8,300 servicemen received it, of which 2,800 were apartments, 5,500 were housing subsidies.

The rate of formation of specialized housing stock has increased 5.5 times. This made it possible to increase its volume to 78 thousand office premises. In 2018, this fund included 16,500 apartments, and 35,500 families of military personnel were provided with service housing.

The development of the accumulative mortgage system continues. This year, 43,000 more servicemen are included in it, which is 2 times more than in previous years. At the same time, more than 64% of the participants are private and non-commissioned officers who have signed new contracts.

Comrade Supreme Commander!

Thanks to the implementation of the decisions you have made on the indexation of the salaries of military personnel, its size is kept at the level of wages of workers in the leading sectors of the economy. As part of the execution of the May decrees, an annual indexation of pensions and allowances is envisaged.

We have completed the creation of a network of modern military medicine, have entered the provision of a full range of high-tech medical care at the level of international standards, completed the work begun in 2013 on transferring 29 polyclinic hospitals to the Ministry of Health and the subjects of the Russian Federation.

The appearance of medical institutions has changed: they are equipped with modern equipment, the systems of telemedicine consultations and sanitary and aviation evacuation have been deployed and are functioning. As a result, over the course of three years, the incidence rate of military personnel decreased by 16%, and for the most urgent pathology - respiratory diseases - by 23%.

More than 15,000 patients received high-tech medical care this year. For servicemen of individual garrisons, 187 emergency and planned telemedicine consultations were held. More than 1,400 lives have been saved since the use of multifunctional medical innovative modules.

In accordance with your decree, this year we began to create military-political bodies. One of the most important areas of military-political work is the patriotic education of servicemen of the Armed Forces and youth.

The Yunarmiya movement is expanding every year; today it is represented in every constituent entity of Russia and unites 276,125 teenagers. During the summer period, 1,637 youth camps and 26 expeditions were held. This is 15 times higher than last year. The number of their participants was 83 thousand children and teenagers.

Following the example of the homes of pioneers and orphanages of creativity in the garrisons, houses of youth soldiers and parks "Patriot" are being created, which will give children the opportunity to study in circles and sections all year round.

The International Military-Technical Forum "Army-2018" has become an effective form of establishing interaction between the authorities and the business community in the development of international military-technical cooperation. Representatives of 118 countries of the world, including 102 official military delegations, took part in its work, which is two times more than last year. This speaks to the growth of its popularity and international recognition.

Military cooperation events this year covered 98 countries. In the field of military-technical cooperation, China, India, Egypt, Algeria and Vietnam remained the priority areas for us. We have built up military contacts within ASEAN, we are actively participating in the dialogue mechanism "SMOA plus", continued to strengthen allied relations with the CSTO, CIS and SCO countries.

25 international exercises of various levels were held, the most ambitious of which were the CSTO CRRF exercises "Interaction-2018", the SCO maneuvers "Peace mission - 2018". A record number of delegates, more than 850 representatives from 95 countries and eight international organizations, attended the annual Moscow Conference on International Security this year.

Comrade Supreme Commander!

All tasks set for 2018 have been completed by the Armed Forces. An increase in combat capabilities by 11% and a given level of maintaining the country's defense capability have been ensured.

There is a qualitative and quantitative growth of the main indicators compared to 2017. In general, the equipment of the army and navy with modern weapons has reached 61.5%.

In 2019, the Ministry of Defense will have to solve a number of priority tasks. With regard to strategic nuclear forces: to put on alert duty in the Strategic Missile Forces 31 launchers with Yars and Avangard intercontinental ballistic missiles. Introduce four modernized Tu-95 strategic missile carriers into service. Adopt the lead nuclear-powered submarine of the Borey-A project, Prince Vladimir, armed with Bulava ballistic missiles.

For general purpose forces. As part of improving the district army kits in the Ground Forces, form 11 formations of military units, supply 719 modern armored vehicles to the coastal forces of the Navy and the Airborne Forces, one brigade set of Iskander-M missile systems, two brigades of S-400V4 anti-aircraft missile systems , "Buk-M3", to bring the share of modern designs to 50.8%.

To supply the Aerospace Forces, naval aviation and air defense forces of the Navy with 143 new and modernized aircraft, two regimental sets of S-400 Triumph anti-aircraft missile systems, one Vityaz anti-aircraft missile system and seven divisional anti-aircraft missile-gun complex "Pantsir".

To increase the share of modern weapons of military and special equipment in the Air Force to 65% , and in the Aerospace Forces - up to 81.8%. Ensure the fulfillment of the tasks of the experimental combat duty of the Unified Space System.

Introduce 12 ships and combat boats, two submarines, and 12 support vessels into the combat composition of the Navy. To supply the troops with four coastal missile systems "Ball" and "Bastion". In general, bring the share of modern samples in the Navy to 64% .

As a result, ensure the timely deployment and strict execution of the tasks of the state defense order in 2019 and equip the Armed Forces with modern weapons and equipment - 67%.

Prepare and conduct 18,500 different exercises and exercises, including the Center-2019 strategic command post exercise and the Thunder strategic nuclear forces exercise.

To put into operation 3,751 buildings and structures synchronously with the terms of the armaments and military equipment entering the troops. Complete environmental work in the Arctic, clean up the remaining 9,000 km².

Build a Presidential Cadet School in Kemerovo, a boarding school for the Ministry of Defense students in St. Petersburg. To intensify the military-patriotic work among the youth, to bring the number of youth soldiers up to 500,000 teenagers.

In the next three years, to solve the problem of erecting ice skating rinks, swimming pools and sports camps in all pre-university institutions of the Ministry of Defense.

Continue implementing the Effective Army program.

By 2020, complete the implementation of a system for recording personal data of military personnel using electronic cards "Passport".

Comrade Supreme Commander!

The solutions identified during the work of problematic issues are taken into account in the plans of the Ministry of Defense for 2019–2025.

The report is over.

Russian empire inXIX in.

Describe the main directions of the internal policy of the Russian Empire in the first half XIX in.

First half of the 19th century - this is the time of the reign of two emperors Alexander I and Nicholas I.

Alexander I (1801-1825)

The first period of Alexander's reign was marked by liberal reforms. At the beginning of his reign, he confirmed the liberal disposition of future reforms: the "Secret Chancellery" was destroyed, freedom was granted to political prisoners and exiles, torture, which became an indispensable part of legal proceedings, was prohibited. The emperor paid particular attention to the issues of abolishing serfdom and limiting autocracy. The solution of these issues and others was discussed by Alexander among his associates who are members of the "Secret Committee" (PA Stroganov, VP Kochubei, NN Novosiltsev, AD Chartorisky).

Already in 1802, an administrative reform was carried out, which consisted of replacing the collegia with 8 ministries: military, naval, foreign affairs, justice, internal affairs, finance, commerce, and public education. Simultaneously with the creation of ministries, the Senate reform was carried out. The Senate was proclaimed the "supreme seat of the empire", whose power was limited only by the power of the emperor. The ministers were required to submit annual reports to the Senate, which he could challenge to the sovereign.

But nevertheless, Alexander did not cease to worry about the solution of the peasant question, firstly, he stopped the practice of distributing state peasants into serfs to the nobles, and secondly, on February 20, 1803, a decree on free (free) farmers was issued, which established the rules for the release of serfs and the allotment their land, but he attributed the granting of freedom to the decision of the owners of the estates themselves. This Decree formed a special social category of free farmers who own land under the right of private property, in contrast to the state peasants. As for the practical results of this Decree, they were small. The total number of serfs freed after its publication was about 50,000.

In 1803, another important reform was carried out - a reform in the field of public education. On January 24, 1803, Alexander approved a new regulation on the structure of educational institutions. The territory of Russia was divided into six educational districts, in which four categories of educational institutions were created: parish, district, provincial schools, as well as gymnasiums and universities. The latter were supposed to represent the highest level of education. If before that time there was only one university in Russia - Moscow, founded in 1755, now many old universities have been restored and new ones created. Although education was still inaccessible to a significant part of the population, primarily the peasants, the new education system met the needs of society for literate, qualified specialists.

A new stage of reforms that began in 1803 demanded new people, these new people were A.A. Arakcheev and M.M. Speransky. The first dealt mainly with issues related to the reorganization of the army, the second - the development of plans for new reforms.

Speransky's reforms.

The reform plan proposed by Speransky represented the thoughts of the emperor himself.

First, he proposed reforming the public administration system by implementing the separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial.

Secondly, in terms of reforms, the issue of civil rights was considered, which was supposed to endow the entire population of the country, including serfs. Among such rights, he attributed the impossibility of punishing someone without a court decision. The right to participate in the elections was supposed to endow only the first two estates of the state - the nobility and the merchants.

The implementation of Speransky's plan was to turn Russia into a constitutional monarch, where the power of the monarch would be limited by a bicameral legislature of the parliamentary type.

The implementation of Speransky's plan began in 1809 - 1810. On January 1, 1810, the Council of State (legislative body) was created, which was supposed to coordinate the activities of all three branches of government. The implementation of the next stages of the reform was delayed, in the summer of 1810 the transformation of the ministries began: the Ministry of Commerce was liquidated, the Ministries of Police and Railways were created, as well as a number of new Main Directorates. The State Duma was never created. Speransky's proposal for the reorganization of the Senate, the essence of which was to divide it into two - government and judicial, was rejected by members of the State Council. After a series of setbacks, Speransky asked for his resignation.

Reasons for the failure of new reforms:

the very personality of Speransky, who rose from the bottom, caused envy and anger in court circles.

secondly, the reforms of Speransky encroached on the long-established and very convenient order for the nobility and officials.

Arakcheev's reforms.

Arakcheev's reforms - became a transition from liberalism to reaction, the hallmark of which was the implementation of military reform, which consisted in the creation of military settlements. Realizing that any attempt to abolish serfdom would cause dissatisfaction on the part of the landowners, Alexander decided to make the army his main support. However, the army itself was largely dependent on the nobility: half of the recruits were taken from serfs, most of the food supplies also came from the noble estates. The first priority was to create a self-sufficient army. Hence the idea of \u200b\u200bmilitary settlements arose. In military settlements, military training was combined with productive work. It was expected that: 1) the army would become economically and financially self-sufficient; 2) the soldiers will be provided with land and livelihoods; 3) military settlements will relieve the population of the need to pay taxes for the maintenance of the army.

However, there were not many successful military settlements, mostly the soldiers did not approve of this idea, since here they faced new oppression from the administration, which entailed a series of uprisings, brutally suppressed by Arakcheev's assistants.

By the end of his reign, Alexander completely forgot about reforms, pursuing a reactionary policy and acting to please the landowners. The activity of Masonic lodges was prohibited, the landowners were allowed to exile the guilty peasants to settle in Siberia.

All historians say that the reason for the failure of ongoing and planned reforms was Alexander's weakness in front of the nobility, who did not want to change the foundations that were convenient for them. In addition, the inconsistency in the reforms is noted: "the emperor and his staff decided to introduce new state institutions before suitable civil relations were created, they wanted to build a liberal constitution in a society half of which was in slavery."

Nicholas I (1825-1855)

Nicholas I was the complete opposite of his brother; there was not even a shadow of liberalism in his actions. Already by the first measures, he confirmed the reactionary mood of his policy: the press was limited, the universities were placed under strict control, the Special Third Department of the Imperial Chancellery, an organ of the secret police, was created.

The beginning of Nikolai's reign was marked by a historically remarkable event - the uprising of the Decembrists, who proposed projects of reforms that contributed to the strengthening of Russia. The ideas of the Decembrists did not disappear without a trace, but were adopted by Nicholas, who adhered to them in his actions. Nikolai takes a number of measures to restrict serfdom. The Decembrists drew attention to the need to abolish serfdom. The purpose of the laws being issued was reduced to the idea of \u200b\u200bregulating the exploitation of peasant labor by landowners. However, they had no practical value.

A series of peasant unrest swept across Russia, during which there was a demand for the return of communal self-government. To meet this requirement, a trusteeship reform was carried out. Its essence consisted in the division of provinces into districts, and those in turn were divided into volosts and rural societies. The administration of the districts was entrusted to the district chiefs of their nobles. And in volosts and rural societies, peasant self-government was introduced. This reform helped to improve the welfare of state peasants.

Another evil pointed out by the Decembrists was financial disorder. This became the basis for financial reform, under the leadership of Finance Minister Kankrin. As a result, the gold reserve of Russia was increased, at the expense of it a new course was maintained, according to which the stabilized paper money introduced in 1839 was 3.5 times more expensive than the previous one. The silver ruble was introduced as the "main coin", and credit notes were issued, which were freely exchanged for silver.

Kankrin was the initiator of another reform, which, according to his plan, contributed to the creation of a deficit-free budget. This is a trade, or guild, reform, which limited the opportunities for monopolization of trade by merchants of the first guild and expanded the rights of the middle merchants, which contributed to the emergence of another source of replenishment of the budget.

The destinies of Alexander I and Nicholas I are similar in the sense that the one hundred and first, and the second tried to carry out the reforms necessary for society, but were powerless in the face of insurmountable difficulties associated with conservative public opinion, the absence in society of those political forces that could support the reform efforts emperor.

Analyze the development of the financial and monetary system in Russia during the reign of Alexander I and NikolayI... What is the role of the Ministry of Finance and its head E.F. Kankrin in creating a deficit-free budget?

In 1802, the Ministry of Finance was created, which performed national functions - drawing up the budget, determining the sources of replenishing the treasury, developing economic policy and customs tariffs.

Since the share of Russia in the first half of the nineteenth century. many trials fell - Russia participated in a number of international conflicts, its territory was invaded by Napoleon's armies, in the middle of the century the destructive Crimean War took place - the national debt grew year after year, creating a budget deficit.

The activities of the first finance ministers (A.I. Vasiliev, F.A.Golubtsov) did not in the least improve the situation, on the contrary, during their time the financial situation deteriorated sharply: the issue of paper money - banknotes increased, which caused a drop in their exchange rate, even increased taxes, the introduction of supplements to taxes and duties did not improve the situation.

In 1810, the Ministry of Finance was headed by D.A. Guriev, his appointment was promoted by M.M. Speransky. Guryev did not support Speransky's financial projects, but acted on his own. In 1810 he introduced a monetary system based on the principle of monetary monometallism, without reducing the issue of banknotes. Guriev achieved a manifesto introducing a uniform circulation of bank notes. All payments, primarily taxes and duties, were allowed to be paid in banknotes at the exchange rate of the day they were made. This led to almost complete confusion in the country.

Speransky's reforms were more consistent and more conducive to the stabilization of the financial sector. Speransky drew up the "Plan of Finance", the purpose of which was to eliminate the budget deficit, this was supposed to be achieved by increasing taxes, including on noble estates, introducing new customs tariffs (protectionist policy), and cutting government spending. Part of the measures envisaged by Speransky was implemented: a new customs tariff was introduced, new taxes on distilling were introduced, the noble estates expanded the scope of credit. However, Speransky's proposal to raise taxes largely contributed to his removal from business, since it generated massive discontent with this measure.

Guryev held out in the chair of the Minister of Finance until 1823, and was replaced in this post by E.F. Kankrin. Unlike his predecessors, he had a professional education and extensive practical management experience. Like its predecessors, Kankrin tried to ensure a deficit-free budget. For this, a trade, or guild reform was carried out, which limited the possibilities of monopolization of trade by merchants of the first guild and expanded the rights of the average merchant. The reform provided another source of replenishment of the budget, since payments were introduced for tradespeople, artisans and peasants, who had not previously made guild payments to the treasury.

An important stage in achieving this goal was the monetary reform at the turn of the 30s and 40s, the need for this reform was ripening for a long time, since the joint circulation of metal and paper rubles led to the fact that the paper ruble became 3.5 - 4 times cheaper than the metal one. The first step in preparing the monetary reform was to increase the gold reserves of Russia. The next stage was the release in 1831-1839. treasury notes (auxiliary means in monetary circulation). They combined the nature of a term loan and a state banknote. In 1839, the Ministry of Finance established depository offices that issued deposit tickets backed by silver rubles for rubles.

The manifesto of Nicholas I of July 1, 1839 declared the silver ruble to be the main legal monetary unit of Russia, and bank notes were allowed as a secondary sign - the transition from bank notes to credit circulation began. By 1843, the process of withdrawing banknotes from circulation and exchanging their non-credit notes was going well. At the end of Kankrin's activities, Russia had a deficit-free budget. However, the Crimean War once again plunged Russian finances into a deep crisis, the overcoming of which lasted for the second half of the 19th century.

Show the relationship between the peasant reform of 1861 and the liberal reforms of the 1860s-1870s.

The Peasant Reform of 1861 was the largest socio-economic and political transformation in Russian history, leading to other liberal reforms. The connection of this reform with the subsequent ones is emphasized in view of the fact that the granting of personal freedom to the peasants required the creation of conditions for its implementation in the social, cultural and economic fields. These conditions were provided by the ongoing liberal reforms, the implementation of which was facilitated by the change in the nature of the Russian state.

At the heart of the interdependence of the peasant reform with the reforms of the 60-70s. lies in the fact that they were carried out in a single line of liberal sentiments, the need for which was ripe after the domination of the political regime of Nicholas I. Liberalism tends to emphasize the absence of class, group and national prejudices, individualism, and the self-worth of the individual. Therefore, all reforms were aimed at overcoming class discrimination in relation to the peasantry.

The Zemsky Reform of 1864 created the first truly local self-government for all classes that had existed since pre-Petrine times. The peasants were given political rights: the right to vote implied the participation of peasants in the election of members of the zemstvo assemblies (those elected from the peasants were part of the third curia). The first curia included landowners, and the second - urban voters. The bodies of local self-government created in the provinces (provincial assemblies and provincial councils) and counties (uyezd assemblies and county governments) were supposed to exercise control over schools, hospitals, mail, communications, trade, insurance, statistics, etc.

The urban reform of 1870 involved the implementation of measures similar in spirit to the Zemstvo reform, aimed at improving urban governance. Voters were also divided into three curiae.

The role of zemstvos in the second half of the 19th century great. The development of the peasant economy was supported and stimulated by zemstvo savings and loan associations and various forms of cooperation.

Judicial reform of 1864, which was headed by S.I. Zarudny, was aimed at improving the judicial procedure. In the course of it, the crown and magistrate courts were created. Volost courts were created especially for the peasants. Although the judicial reform retained some features of the estate, it helped the peasants acquire the right to a fair judge, since earlier the court over the peasants was carried out by the landowners themselves, following their interests, and not the letter of the law.

The military reform of 1874 introduced universal military service. This law was deeply democratic in spirit, since until that time the recruiting duty introduced by Peter I was borne only by the tax-paying estates (peasants, philistines, etc.). class differences in the army and especially in the navy remained, although any soldier could become an officer according to his merits.

Financial reform, led by the Minister of Finance, liberal M.Kh. Reitern, during which the following measures were taken:

the purchase of wine, the purchase of salt, sugar, oil was canceled, an excise system was introduced;

the principles of publicity, legality and control over the administration were proclaimed;

increased taxes and reduced costs;

1859 - the system of state tickets was eliminated;

an extensive network of credit institutions was created, consisting of the State Bank (1860) and private commercial banks.

As a result of these actions in the 70s. a financial and industrial boom began in Russia. The railway network connected the southern and northern regions of the country and grew 11 times. The further development of fallow lands in the south of Russia received an impetus, and the land shortage of the peasantry decreased.

The reform of public education provided universities with broad autonomy: they could decide on their own scientific, educational and administrative-financial issues. Peasants who received personal freedom should have enjoyed the right to receive education, but financial difficulties did not allow them to do this. Therefore, the Ministry of Public Education allocated special funds to the gymnasiums for teaching gifted children at public expense. Since all reforms were carried out with the aim of providing all citizens with equal rights, it was necessary to provide women with the opportunity to receive education, which began in the 70s.

The results of liberal reforms in the 60s and 70s:

the reforms marked the course of the state towards the creation of the third estate - the estate of small owners.

the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia.

Describe the activities of the finance ministers N.Kh. Bunge and I.A. Vyshnegradskiy.

N.Kh. Bunge (1881-1886)

Appointment to the post of Minister of Finance N.Kh. Bunge initiated the preparation of a new monetary reform and changes in the tax system. Bunge carried out the following transformations in the tax system: he introduced taxation on non-taxable estates, excise taxes on alcoholic beverages, and taxed income from rent and wages.

To overcome the budget deficit, Bunge began accumulating currency from customs duties, pursuing a policy of protectionism. As a result, in 1887 the gold reserve in the State Bank amounted to 84.3 million rubles. In 1887 Bunge abolished the poll tax.

Nikolai Khristoforovich paid great attention to the issues of expanding the domestic market, contributed to the increase in funding for industry.

Of no small importance in Bunge's activities was the peasant question, the solution of which he tried to eliminate the negative consequences of the peasant reform of 1861. He was engaged in the resettlement of land-poor peasants.

The last measure Bunge advocated was the introduction of an income tax, but this he failed and was one of the reasons for his resignation.

I.A. Vyshnegradsky (1887-1892)

The activities of the new finance minister were aimed at revitalizing the balance of payments. His career began by forcing the grain trade with the West. The export of wheat from 1887 to 1895 increased by 1.5 times. To encourage the grain trade, the state has blued its railway tariff system and raised duties. Vyshnegradskiy was accused of putting forward the slogan: "We will not finish eating, but we will take out!" In the lean years of 1891 and 1892, the grain provinces were struck by famine, to combat which state funds were thrown, which the social forces also lacked. In fruitful years, Vyshnegradskiy managed to draw up deficit-free budgets. He carried out a bold operation to convert old loans (lowering the interest rate or changing the maturity).

In 1887, due to the complication of relations between the Petersburg and Berlin cabinets, German Chancellor Bismarck tried to cause the financial collapse of the Russian Empire, which placed its state loans on the Berlin stock exchange, in order to avoid this, the Ministry of Finance of Russia agreed with representatives of French banks to buy Russian securities. In 1888-1890. several large loans were placed on the Paris money market and the old ones were converted. As a result of Vyshnegradsky's activities during the 80s. long treasury to the State Bank decreased by 300 million, and in 1901 the treasury had no debt. At the same time, the amount of government debt increased as a result of the conversion in chalk and the interest on the debt remained high.

Analyze the essence, implementation mechanism and results of the peasant reform of 1861.

The need to abolish serfdom had been ripening for a long time, the political regime that existed under Nicholas I further confirmed the need to implement this measure, since its main drawback was the institution of serfdom: there was a deep decline in agriculture, and the export of basic agricultural crops decreased.

Although the need for this reform was ripe for a long time, and even concrete steps were taken to implement it, it was carried out under Alexander II. The implementation of this reform was largely facilitated by the awareness of its need even by conservatives and the readiness of Alexander II to sacrifice the interests of the feudal landlords. However, one more obstacle to the implementation of the peasant reform remained; it was the inability of state bodies to carry it out. In January 1857, the Secret Committee for Peasant Reform was created, later renamed the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs, it consisted of several high-ranking officials who, fearing decisive actions, impeded the work. In November 1857, rescripts were signed in the name of the Vilna and St. Petersburg governor-generals on the creation of provincial committees from local landowners "to improve the life of landowners' peasants", this decisive step made a retreat from the reform impossible. In 1858 such committees were created in 46 provinces. In a speech to the Moscow nobility, Alexander noted: "It is better for the reform to take place from above than to expect serfdom to be abolished from below."

It took three years to develop a general reform plan and clarify the state of the provinces for its implementation. The activities of the provincial committees were checked by the editorial commissions established in 1859, which were headed by Yakov Rostovtsev, a liberal-minded dignitary who played an important role in the reform. N.A. also had a great influence on the course of the reform. Milyutin, Yu.F. Samarin, M.Kh. Reitern et al.

The result of the activities of the organizations created was the "Statute on the Peasantry" and "Manifesto" signed by the emperor on February 19, 1861, announcing the emancipation of the peasantry.

Basic principles of the reform:

the servants were to be released within two years without ransom, but they received nothing but freedom;

serfs received not only personal freedom, but also plots of land, which accounted for about half of what was left to the owner. when determining the norm of the allotment, both natural and economic conditions, and the land that remained with the landowner were taken into account. The law provided for slashing or cutting off plots of land from the peasant allotment in case of deviation from the norm. As a rule, meadows, pastures, watering places, without which it was difficult to manage the economy, fell into the "sections";

under the terms of the release, the land did not become the private property of the peasants, but was considered as the property of the landowner, to whom they had to pay for the use of the land. The states decided to help speed up the process of buying out land from the landowner by providing additional credit for buying out land. Land payments were made on the basis of long-term commitments. The amount that the government paid for the land of the peasant, the latter had to pay within 49 years. But even after the land was bought out by the government, the peasants did not teach it to be private property, since it came into the common property of a peasant association or village with collective responsibility for the redemption payments of its members.

The results of the peasant reform:

the peasants lost more land than they gained;

an interest loan provided by the government for the purchase of peasant lands, the payment of which stretched out for 49 years, forced the loan to be paid three times;

two types of farming appeared in the countryside - landlord and allotment peasant. This led to the possibility of agricultural development in two ways - landlord economy on the basis of noble land tenure and small-scale peasant production;

peasant reform provided an opportunity for a whole series of liberal reforms.

Give a brief description of the three main directions in the social and political thought of Russia in the second half XIX century: protection, liberalism and revolutionary democracy.

Guardianship is the official ideology of autocracy, expressed in the formula "Orthodoxy - autocracy - nationality" and designed to substantiate and defend the foundations of the autocratic system. This ideology began to be developed by the Minister of Education S.S. Uvarov in the 40s. XIX century. as opposed to revolutionary ideology in society.

In the 60-80s. the ideology of protection is being developed more deeply thanks to such thinkers as K.N. Leontiev, N. Ya. Danilevsky, K.P. Pobedonostsev. They were united by the conviction that the Europeanization and politicization of the people were destructive for Russia. In particular, Pobedonostsev considered it a crime to incite political passions in the peasantry, which led to greed, self-interest, and the emergence of dark instincts. He was a staunch opponent of democracy in Russia, believing that the Russian peasantry was not ready for self-government. the ideal form of government, in his opinion, is the monarchy, where the monarch is the unity of a reasonable will.

The supporters of the ideology of protection were against the revolution, leading to spiritual and inevitably following material destruction. Their main goal was to preserve the most important national foundations - the Orthodox faith, an original political and socio-economic system. Representatives expressed interesting ideas about the development of events in the XX century. So Leont'ev created his own historiosophical concept, according to which the development of liberal and socialist ideas will cause the emergence of "slavery in a new form", in the form of the most severe subordination of individuals to small and large communities, and communities to the state, his prophecy came true.

Liberalism, which developed in the first half of the 19th century, at the end of the 50s. entered a new stage, which lasted until the 90s. During this time, the liberals have found unity in their desire to exert real influence on domestic politics, in particular, liberal-minded politicians led the "great reforms" of the 60s and 70s. Their practical activities have revealed an important pattern of liberal politics - gradual economic and social transformations should significantly outstrip the transformations of the political system.

A new generation of liberals took part in the development and implementation of reforms: N.A. and D.A. Milyutins, A.V. Golovnin, M.Kh. Reitern, N.Kh. Bunge. As a result of their transformations, they came to the conclusion that Russia must choose the path of constant and careful transformations in order to prevent a revolutionary explosion in the country, which they considered to be an absolute evil. The implementation of zemstvo, city and judicial reforms in Russia led to the spread of the ideals of liberalism in the provinces. On their basis, a broad zemstvo-liberal movement arose.

By the beginning of the 90s. new trends are emerging in the liberal movement. Among Russian liberals, two trends stand out: radical (constitutional) and moderate. The liberals of the late 19th - early 20th century opposed Russian absolutism and condemned the arbitrariness and violence that flourished in the country, they strove to introduce bourgeois-democratic freedoms in Russia, expand the functions of local self-government, involve the bourgeois public in resolving issues of a national plan, etc.

Revolutionary democracy. The first representatives of revolutionary democracy in Russia were the Decembrists, who created a revolutionary organization and opposed the autocratic-serf system. The second period of this movement began in 1861; N.G. Chernyshevsky had a great influence on it. By 1861, two centers of the revolutionary movement emerged: one in London, the other in Russia. Populists of the 1870s adopted the democratic, anti-liberal traditions of the revolutionary democrats of the 60s.

Populism 60-80-ies. rejection of the bourgeoisness was characteristic; the desire to protect the interests of the peasantry, in particular, the main theoretician of revolutionary populism in the 70s. M.A. Bakunin considered the main goal of the movement to be the conquest of freedom (economic, political, spiritual), that is, the liberation of the people in all areas; unwillingness to recognize the existence of capitalism in Russia. The means to achieve this goal was the revolution, the main driving force of which should be the people. Other prominent representatives of populism were P.L. Lavrov, P.N. Tkachev, N.K. Mikhailovsky. After several unsuccessful attempts to rouse the people to an uprising, there is a kind of return to the tactics of the Decembrists: a revolution by the forces of a small group of revolutionaries united in a revolutionary organization. In 1876, the secret revolutionary society "Land and Freedom" was created. In 1879, in connection with the emergence of disagreements, two organizations "Black Redistribution" and "Narodnaya Volya" appeared. After the defeat of Narodnaya Volya, as a result of the unification of the Narodnaya Volya organizations operating abroad and in Russia, the Northern Union of Socialist-Revolutionaries, the Party of Socialist-Revolutionaries, and others were formed. By the end of the 70s - the beginning of the 80s. XIX century. revolutionary populism is transformed into a liberal one, which does not set itself the goal of organizing the revolutionary struggle.

What system of state authorities was formed under Alexander I?

As a result of the administrative reform carried out under the leadership of M.M. Speransky, under Alexander, a system of state bodies of power was formed, based on the principles of the separation of powers into legislative (State Council), executive (ministries) and judicial (Senate). All branches of government closed on the sovereign.

What is the significance of the Patriotic War of 1812 and the foreign campaigns of the Russian army for Russian history?

The Russian Empire, having achieved a brilliant victory over Napoleon in the Patriotic War of 1812, became the leading power in the world.

The Patriotic War of 1812 largely contributed to the emergence in society of ideas about the abolition of serfdom as a necessary condition for the further development of Russia. This was facilitated by the peasant unrest that began at the very beginning of the war. If Napoleon in such a situation announced the abolition of serfdom, the resistance of the peasantry, outraged by the arbitrariness and robberies of the Napoleonic army, would be suppressed, Russia would be conquered. But peasant resistance was not only not eliminated, on the contrary, the war of 1812 is a rare example when all estates acted as a united front against the enemy. "... this powerful national impulse ... meant much more than decades of peaceful everyday existence ... Without the national principle, there is neither the year 1812, nor the entire subsequent spiritual life of Russian society ..."

In addition, overseas trips are a source of Decembrism. The Decembrist movement is a manifestation of an antifeudal, bourgeois struggle. The future Decembrists learned these ideas during their foreign campaigns, making sure that serfdom is not a universal phenomenon, but its abolition improves the position of the peasantry and contributes to the development of the country as a whole.

What do you know about the causes and consequences of the Decembrist uprising?

Reasons for the Decembrist uprising:

feudal serf system in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. was a brake on the development of productive forces, the historical progress of the country. The best minds in Russia understood that the preservation of serfdom and autocracy was disastrous for the future fate of Russia;

internal reaction aimed at instilling cane discipline in the army and brutally suppressing any manifestations of free-thinking, and a reactionary foreign policy (the creation of the "Holy Alliance", the purpose of which was to unite the reactionary monarchist powers to fight the revolutionary and national liberation movements);

a general deterioration in the situation of the masses, which intensified after the war of 1812: many villages were ruined, the nobles intensified their oppression, trying to improve the financial situation at the expense of the peasants;

the formation of a revolutionary outlook was greatly facilitated by foreign campaigns. The future Decembrists, having been abroad during them, became convinced that serfdom is not a universal phenomenon and only disgraces Russia;

in addition to internal reasons, there were also factors of international importance. Early 19th century marked by the growth of the revolutionary movement in many countries of the world, which contributed to the breakdown of the feudal-absolutist institutions and orders.

The consequences of the Decembrist uprising:

Russia for a long period of time has lost outstanding people, brilliant minds, ruined in exile. For many years the social life of the country was frozen;

the authorities, frightened by the bold actions of the Decembrists, were extremely suspicious of any proposals for modernization and changes;

the reaction of the authorities to the Decembrist uprising convinced the educated society of Russia that the people were indifferent to the Western ideals of freedom and the political movement in general. Revolutionary action cannot lead Russia to freedom;

another consequence of the uprising can be called the fact that it hastened the implementation of reforms in Russia, his speech emphasizing their need. Consideration of the ways of development of political life in Russia began in the 30s. and only in the 60s. liberal reforms began.

What do you know about the Crimean War? How did its results affect the domestic policy of Russia?

CRIMEAN WAR (1853 - 1856)

Causes of the war:

aggravation of the contradictions between Russia and Turkey and Western European countries. Russia, dissatisfied with the political guarantee of the Black Sea Straits regime, enshrined in the London Conventions, has again returned to a policy of "free hands" in the Middle East. This circumstance became the source of the conflict between tsarism, Turkey and Western European countries;

Russia strove to multiply its conquests in the Ottoman Empire;

western European countries (England, France), which were on the side of Turkey, hatched a plan of war against Russia in order to reduce it to a secondary power.

The reason for the start of the war was the mission of Prince A.S. Menshikov in Constantinople, during which he demanded to restore the rights of the Orthodox Church in Palestine and confirm them with a special convention, the prince's defiant behavior closed the way for a peaceful resolution of the conflict. Great Britain played an important provocative role in unleashing the war, whose ambassador did everything to unleash the war.

Crimean War, during which there are two stages. The first (November 1853 - April 1854) is the actual Russian-Turkish campaign. The second (April 1854 - February 1856) was associated with the Anglo-French intervention in the Crimea and extensive military operations on the Caucasian front.

Results of the war:

Russia was defeated in the Crimean War;

the main task of England and France, which consisted in undermining Russian military might in the Black Sea basin, was achieved;

On March 18, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed, which marked the formation of the Crimean system, based on the principle of neutralizing the Black Sea. Russia was deprived of the right to have a navy in the Black Sea, Russia also lost the southern part of Bessarabia, but she managed to defend the rights of the Moldavian, Wallachian and Serbian peoples, the Danube principalities did not fall under the Austrian yoke.

The Crimean War had an exceptional impact on the internal situation in the country. She contributed to the development of mass peasant uprisings, and therefore accelerated the formation of the first revolutionary situation in Russia.

What do you know about the activities of the populist organizations "Land and Freedom" and "Narodnaya Volya"?

The first large revolutionary-democratic secret organization "Land and Freedom" was created in 1861. Its ideological leader was N.G. Chernyshevsky. The landowners considered their program document to be Ogarev's article "What the people need", which warned the people against premature, unprepared statements.

The landowners launched an active illegal publishing activity in their printing house. They conducted widespread oral propaganda and agitation, explaining the need to eliminate the autocracy, a just solution to the agrarian question and the establishment of democratic freedoms in Russia.

Focusing on the rise of the peasant and national liberation movement in Russia, the landowners hoped to start a revolution. However, in 1863 the peasant movement began to decline, and many revolutionaries, including Chernyshevsky, were arrested. As a result, by the spring of 1864, "Land and Freedom" ceased to exist. The activities of this organization were of great historical significance: it was the center of rallying the most active democratically forces and had a serious impact on the subsequent development of the liberation movement, the formation of revolutionary democratic ideology in Russia.

In 1876, the organization "Land and Freedom" was revived first in the form of the organization of the "Northern Revolutionary Populist Group". It consisted of the participants in the “going to the people” headed by A.D. Mikhailov, G.V. Plekhanov, S.M. Kravchinsky, N.A. Morozov, V.N. Finger, etc.

The program "Land and Freedom" provided for the implementation of the socialist revolution by transferring all the land to the peasants and organizing "secular self-government" based on peasant communities. They considered riots, strikes and demonstrations to be the main means to achieve their goals. Land and Freedom had close ties with student organizations. The practice of rural settlements and agitation of landowners did not bring the expected results. It was not possible to raise a popular uprising. Disappointed with the methods chosen, which did not bring significant results, some landowners began to lean towards the tactics of terror. As a result of disputes over the choice of tactics in the organization, a split occurred. "Land and Freedom" was divided into "Black Redistribution" and "Narodnaya Volya".

Narodnaya Volya (1879 - 1881) was headed by A.D. Mikhailov, S.L. Perovskaya, V.N. Finger and others. Narodnaya Volya believed that the people were crushed and brought to slavery by the government. Their goal is to make a political coup and establish a democratic system in the country, transfer the land to the peasants, and the factories to the workers. To achieve their goals, the Narodnaya Volya attracted all the dissatisfied. Much attention was paid to terror and the preparation of regicide. They succeeded in carrying out their plan - on March 1, 1881, Alexander II was killed, but this did not cause an uprising as expected. Under Alexander III, who intensified the repression, almost all the members of the Executive Committee of the People's Will were arrested.

What were the prerequisites and results of S.Yu. Witte?

Preconditions for the gold reform:

the activities of the previous finance ministers Bunge and Vyshnegradskiy, who took all possible measures to create a deficit-free budget;

The Crimean War significantly worsened the financial development of Russia, in order to get the country out of the situation of constant budget deficit, it was necessary to "put our currency on a solid foundation"

it was necessary to improve the state of the country's state economy, especially to ensure the possibility of industrial development.

Results of the gold reform:

Monetary reform has strengthened the external and internal exchange rates of the ruble;

the monetary economy was placed on the same level with the economy of Western European states;

the gold reform improved the state economy in general and gave a significant impetus to the development of industry in Russia;

the stabilization of the ruble exchange rate contributed to the expansion of Russia's foreign trade relations;

the monetary reform gave Russia the opportunity to endure the Japanese war relatively safely.

Dates

When was the Decree on Free Farmers issued?

When did the battle of Borodino take place?

When was the State Bank of the Russian Empire established?

June 1860

When was poll tax in Russia canceled?

When did the abolition of serfdom in Russia take place?

The Manifesto was published in 1861, but the actual liberation of the peasants began in 1863.

When did the spread of Marxism in Russia begin?

During the 80s. the spread of Marxism in Russia began.

Personalities

What is the historical significance of M.M. Speransky?

Speransky, being a liberal-minded reformer, contributed to the formation of the foundations of a constitutional monarchy in Russia, introducing the principle of separation of powers, civil rights for all segments of the population. Speransky's activities became a harbinger of liberal reforms in the 60s and 70s.

Whom do you know of the Westernizers and Slavophiles?

Westerners: T.N. Granovsky, V.P. Botkin, K. D. Kavelin, N.V. Stankevich, M.A. Bakunin, S.M. Soloviev, V.G. Belinsky, P.V. Annenkov, I.I. Panaev, young A.I. Herzen and N.P. Ogarev.

Slavophiles: A.S. Khomyakov, brothers Aksakov, brothers Kireevsky, Yu.F. Samarin, A.I. Koshelev, Prince V.A. Cherkassky.

Who do you know of the liberal leaders who prepared and carried out the reforms of the 60-70s? XIX century?

S.S. Lanskoy, Ya. I. Rostovtsev, the Milyutin brothers, M.Kh. Reitern, N.H. Bunge, A.V. Golovnin.

What do you know about the political activities of M.T. Loris-Melikova?

M.T. Loris-Melikov - Minister of Internal Affairs, hero of the Russian-Turkish war, governor-general of Kharkov.

The name of this finance minister is associated with the creation of a "constitution". Its main idea was that the revolutionary activities of the intelligentsia cannot be stopped by coercive measures alone. In his opinion, the revolutionaries enjoyed the moral support of the moderate classes of society because of their dissatisfaction with the autocracy of the government. He believed that the government should satisfy the moderates by granting a constitution. Loris-Melikov believed that it was necessary to satisfy the desire of representatives of society to participate in public life by attracting elected representatives from zemstvos to work on bills. However, this plan was not implemented due to the assassination of Alexander II.

What is the significance of M.Kh. Reitern as Finance Minister?

During Reitern's activity as Minister of Finance, the first State Bank was created, the network of credit institutions was expanded, which significantly contributed to the development of trade. Measures were taken to eliminate the system of state tickets.

As a result of Reitern's activities in the mid-70s. in Russia, a financial and industrial upsurge began, the foundations of financial and

economic policy.

Who do you know of the first Russian Marxists?

G.V. Plekhanov and V.I. Zasulich, V.N. Ignatov.

Terms:

Guarding

This is the official ideology of autocracy, expressed in the formula "Orthodoxy - autocracy - nationality" and designed to substantiate and defend the foundations of the autocratic system. This ideology began to be developed by the Minister of Education S.S. Uvarov in the 40s. XIX century. as opposed to revolutionary ideology in society. Representatives: K.N. Leontiev, N. Ya. Danilevsky, K.P. Pobedonostsev.

Liberalism

- firstly, the way of thinking and acting, the mentality, which are characterized by independence in relation to traditions, dogmas, and secondly, a set of ideological and political teachings, political and economic programs aimed at eliminating or mitigating various forms of state or social coercion by relation to personality.

Radicalism

- a revolutionary movement, the main idea of \u200b\u200bwhich is the revolt and destruction of old Russia.

Monometallism

- a monetary system in which one metal (gold or silver) acts as a universal equivalent and the basis of monetary circulation. For example, such a system was created under the Minister of Finance D.A. Guryev.

Raznochintsy

- these are children of peasants and merchants who have received primary or higher education; fly from among the clergy who refused to be priests; children of minor officials who did not want to follow the example of their fathers; and children of impoverished nobles. The commoners quickly formed a new social class - the intelligentsia, which included many nobles.

Allotment land tenure

- This is a type of land ownership, in accordance with which, after the abolition of serfdom, plots of land (allotments) were in household or communal ownership, the community had to bear obligations for obtaining this land.

List of references

For the preparation of this work were used materials from the site sergeev-sergey.narod.ru/start/glava.html

September 15, 1801
On the day of the coronation of Alexander I, the Imperial Decree is issued "On the abolition of torture".

In honor of the new Emperor, a bronze medal is issued with the image of the monarch on the obverse and the inscription "Law is the guarantee of the bliss of one and all" on the reverse.

June 24, 1801
In the imperial chambers, the first meeting of the Secret Committee, which includes friends of the youth of Alexander I: Count P.A. Stroganov, Count V.P. Kochubei, N.N. Novosiltsev, Prince A.A. Czartorizhsky. These were educated representatives of the noble youth who became prominent statesmen of the era.

The Committee's tasks include: "first of all, to find out the actual state of affairs; then to reform various parts of the administration and, finally, to provide state institutions with a constitution based on the true spirit of the Russian people."

September 8, 1802
Approved Manifesto of Alexander I "On the Establishment of Ministries".

For the management of state affairs, a single ministry is created, divided into 8 departments: military, naval, foreign affairs, justice, internal affairs, finance, commerce and public education. The head of each department is called the Minister, and the departments themselves, immediately after their establishment, are officially called Ministries. All ministries, together with the Committee of Ministers, existed until 1917 (except for the Ministry of Commerce, abolished in 1810).

The first Minister of the Interior is appointed count Kochubei Viktor Pavlovich ... The Minister's Comrade is Count Pavel Alexandrovich Stroganov.

Subordinate to the Minister of Internal Affairs:

• Manufactures collegium (except for the expedition of procurement and storage of promissory notes and stamp paper)
• Medical College,
• Main Salt Office,
• Main post office,
• Expedition of the state economy, guardianship of foreign and rural households, except for the office desk and the printing of bills,
• Provincial boards and orders of public charity, treasury chambers, on the arrangement and maintenance of public buildings and on the calculation of population.

The jurisdiction of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Empire includes local administrative and police institutions, estates of the nobility and urban estates.

September 19, 1802
Count Kochubey, in a personal circular, demands that the governors report to the Ministry data "for a complete and fundamental knowledge of the situation in each province at the present time, and then continue to constantly notify about changes in the situation in one or another branch of government."

The provincial reports include information "about the movement of the population, about taxes and duties, about crops, about grocery stores, about factories and industrial enterprises, about the state economy, about public buildings, about violation of public peace", etc.

1803 g.
Published Decree "On the means to correct the police in cities"which became along with "Charter of the Deanery" the main normative act that determined the structure, functions, competence of city police institutions.

According to the Imperial Decree in St. Petersburg, the first professional fire brigade on a permanent basis... The team is recruited "from soldiers to the frunt service of incapable, but kind and sober behavior, ... who, in turn, would send both the position of guards and firemen." The population of the capital is freed from the allocation of night watchmen, maintenance of firefighters, maintenance of street lamps.

The staff of the St. Petersburg fire brigade includes: a major-brand; firemasters (11 people - according to the number of fire departments); assistant firemasters of non-commissioned officer rank (11); firefighters (528); pump master; locksmith; blacksmiths (2); chimney sweep; chimney sweeps (24); coachman (137).

Colonel Domrachev was appointed as the St. Petersburg brand major (from 1803 to 1827).

January 7, 1803
The staff (45 people) of the Chancellery of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia was approved, which was named Department of Internal Affairs, originally consisting of four expeditions, which included:

• National food and salt part - First expedition.
• Calm and decency - Second expedition.
• Improvement of agriculture, state factories and plants, mining, road conditions - The third expedition.
• Public charity orders, hospitals, charitable institutions, prisons - The fourth expedition.
• Under the Department, a Society of Noblemen is established "to compile the history of each part of the administration, systematize information about each province to compile general statistics of the state, carry out investigations on the ground, assist Expeditions, and execute special orders of the Minister".

1804 g.
First issue comes out "St. Petersburg Journal", the official periodical publication of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (until 1809). In its publication, V.P. Kochubei, M.M. Speransky and Alexander I. himself.

The magazine consisted of two sections. The first section published imperial decrees, the most important government acts, as well as, for the first time to the general public, reports of the Minister of the Interior on the situation in the Empire and the activities of the department entrusted to him. The second section contained materials on foreign government bodies, scientific articles related to the activities of the Ministry of Internal Affairs.

New police forces have been approved and are beginning to be introduced, first in St. Petersburg, Moscow, and later in other provincial and district cities. The Metropolitan Police is divided into internal and external:

The inner part is made up of deanery boards, private bailiffs, quarter overseers who carried out the orders of the city authorities and judicial places, carry out investigations, control the activities of trade establishments and compliance with the passport regime;

The outer part consists of police and fire brigades, night patrols, i.e. units carrying out regular patrol and guard service.

The responsibility for maintaining public order is vested in the chiefs of police and fire chiefs.

Following St. Petersburg, Moscow, its own professional fire brigade is being created, distributed across city units.

1806 g.
On the initiative of Kochubey and Speransky, the Ministry is being reorganized, the meaning of which is to transfer the Post Department to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, change the structure and functions of the Department of Internal Affairs, and introduce new lower-level structural units - tables headed by clerks.

To the state Ministry of Internal Affairs includes:

• Minister and his comrades,
• Society of nobles under the Minister and 5 secretaries,
• Internal affairs department,
• Medical advice,
• Main post office with a separate office.

internal affairs department are:

• Expedition of the State Economy (87 employees) with the Manufacturing Collegium and the Main Salt Office;
• Expedition of the State Improvement (25 employees), consisting of two branches,
• Expedition of the State Medical Board, which in turn was subdivided into two departments. The first department was entrusted with monitoring the activities of all medical officials of the state, including issues of certification and appointment to the position. The second department was engaged in financial and economic activities. In addition, the printing house of the managed Medical College was subordinate to her.
• Construction committee (4 employees)

Functions The first branch of the Expedition of State Improvement:

• collection of information about all incidents, crimes, about persons arriving from abroad and leaving the country,
• control of the "deanery" of public shows and meetings - the first table;
• supervision over the condition of roads and the observance of order on them,
• the "establishment" of the state of the city police teams, night and fire guards, prison officials,
• control over the delivery of convicts to places of serving sentences,
• organization of recruiting for the army - the second table;
• appointment, rewarding, dismissal of local police officials - the third table.

Second branchmainly deals with complaints against the police.

Expedition of public charity with the State Medical Board (55 employees).

In the Moscow district, for the first time in the practice of organizing local police bodies, the city and zemstvo police were united. But the new structure until the 60s of the XIX century. did not receive further distribution.

November 1807
Prince appointed to the post of Minister of Internal Affairs Kurakin Alexey Borisovich .

1809 g.
The Directorate for water and land communications was created - a body for the central management of communications. The territory of the state is divided into ten districts with the respective directors in charge of transport police.

In Moscow and St. Petersburg created address officeswhich became the metropolitan police departments.

All those who came to the capitals for permanent residence in order to work for hire were obliged to register at the address office, the execution of which was monitored by private bailiffs, quarter overseers. A similar rule applied to foreigners "who temporarily live in the capital or permanently, but are not assigned to any state."

Fire brigade included in the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia.

November 3, 1809
The first issue is published " Northern mail or new St. Petersburg newspaper", the printed edition of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, which replaced the" St. Petersburg Journal ".

The newspaper was published twice a week and existed until 1819.

1810 – 1815

1810 g.
The Manifesto "On the division of state affairs into special administrations, with the designation of subjects, which belongs to that administration" was published.

The title of Chief of Police was restored under the name of the Minister of Police "for the general consideration and the main administration of all subjects belonging to the state police".

January 1, 1810
Published by Manifesto "On the formation of the State Council", the highest legislative body. M.M. was appointed as the head of the office of this body in the rank of state secretary. Speransky. The Council is divided into six departments: Laws, Military Affairs, Civil Affairs, Spiritual Affairs, State Economy, Kingdom of Poland. The President of the Council is the Emperor and "no Law, Charter or Institution proceeds from the Council without the approval of the Supreme Power."

March 1810
Kozodavlev Osip Petrovich .

July 25, 1810
Made public new distribution of public affairs between ministries, where the main responsibility of the Ministry of Internal Affairs is recognized as the care of agriculture and industry. The state improvement and the medical unit are transferred to the newly established Ministry of Police.

The building of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Empire in St. Petersburg

January 16, 17, 1811
After the report of the chief of the military ground forces Barclay de Tolly, an Imperial decree was issued on the re-subordination of provincial companies and district commands to the Ministry of War and a decree on the formation of new army regiments on the basis of garrison battalions.

From the garrison battalions (4 companies), 3 companies are allocated, manned by the strongest soldiers, from which infantry battalions are formed (13 army regiments in total). The remaining companies are combined with the provincial companies into a half-battalion of internal service, subordinate to the military department.

March 27, 1811
Published by Imperial Decree on the reorganization of the disabled companies and teams.

All persons with disabilities in these units are divided into three categories: mobile, employees, and disabled. The "incapable" are on state support, receive a salary and "are in the department of the commander of the garrison battalion according to the rules of 1764". The third companies of the provincial half-battalions and separate companies for servicing army hospitals are formed from disabled persons capable of serving.

July 3, 1811
Approved and published "Statement of Internal Guard", which defines the final composition and functions of the internal guard, the procedure for its subordination to the military department and local provincial authorities.

According to the Schedule, the internal guard of the Russian Empire is divided into 8 districts, headed by district generals. The okrug covers from four to eight provinces and 2-4 brigades are deployed in it (a total of 20 brigades).

The tasks of the internal guard include:

• assistance in the implementation of laws and court sentences;
• the capture of thieves, the pursuit and extermination of robbers and the scattering of crowds prohibited by law; suppression of disobedience and riot;
• capture of fugitive criminals and deserters;
• the pursuit of prohibited and secretly imported goods;
• helping the free movement of domestic food;
• assistance in the collection of taxes and arrears; maintaining order and tranquility of church rites of all confessions, tolerated by law;
• maintaining order at fairs and auctions, folk and church festivals, etc .;
• acceptance and escort of recruits, criminals, prisoners and prisoners; sending servicemen who have overdue vacations to their teams;
• assistance in case of fires and flooding of rivers; dispatching the necessary sentries to public places, prisons and prison; escort of the treasury.

July 7, 1811
Position established Inspector of the Inner Guard (aka Assistant to the Minister of War), to which count E.F. Komarovsky .

July 25, 1811
Published by Manifesto "General Establishment of Ministries"that more clearly defines the structure and limits of power of the central government bodies.

According to the Manifesto, all ministries consist of departments (departments), departments are divided into departments (expeditions), departments - into tables. The one-man command and personal responsibility of ministers are increasing. A new advisory body has been introduced into the ministries - the Council of the Minister, which consists of senior officials of the ministry and outside "knowledgeable" people: manufacturers, factory owners, merchants, etc. Cases of special importance cannot be resolved without prior consideration by the Council.

According to the Manifesto, a new Ministry of Policeconsisting of three departments, Medical Council, General and Special Chancellery.

First - the Department of the Economic Police (2 departments, 24 employees) deals with:

• food issues;
• by orders of public charity.

The second is the Executive Police Department (3 departments, 32 employees) deals with:

• drawing up police states, appointing, dismissing, awarding police personnel, examines provincial reports, keeps statistics;
• judicial and criminal cases, the arrangement of prisons and their guards, the transfer of convicts, the capture of runaways and passportless, the suppression of vagrancy, prohibited games, large debtors, bankruptcy cases, schismatics, supervision of police actions in the capture of criminals, complaints about the actions or inaction of the police, etc. .P.
• affairs of "dispatch" zemstvo duties, intercourse with military units.

The third department - Medical (3 departments, 32 employees) deals with:

• the device of medical management and general public health issues;
• procurement of pharmaceutical materials and state-owned pharmacies;
• account of amounts and audit of pharmaceutical materials.

The Medical Council is responsible for supplying the military department with medical supplies, giving opinions on forensic medicine, introducing advanced methods of combating diseases, etc.

The special office of the Minister of Police consists of three Tables, the executor, the chief of the archive and his assistant. The items of the tables are:

• cases in the department of foreigners and foreign passports: statements of travelers passing through the border, issuance of passports for entry and exit from the state, views for foreigners, requests for citizenship and everything else concerning foreigners and foreign relations.
• censorship audit: supervision of booksellers and printing houses, supervision that "books, magazines, small essays and leaflets are not circulated without permission from the government", information "about permissions given for the stamping of new works and translations", about imported the boundaries of books, the permission of new theatrical performances, the supervision of the publication and circulation of various public news (posters), etc.
• special cases, which the Minister of Police deems it necessary to give his own information and permission.

In both offices there is "a certain number of officials, who, without having specific positions, are used by the minister's own election for various local administrations; to check local investigations and the like. These officials may, according to their ability, preferably be assigned to one, or other part of the police service, for vacancies. "

A special office under the Minister of Police, originally created to conduct secret office work, actually performed the functions of a political police. By 1819, the Chief of the Special Chancellery, making personal reports to the Emperor, became practically independent from his Minister.

Simultaneously with the Manifesto published "Institution and order to the Minister of Police"where it is stated that, acting in an emergency, the Minister of Police, bypassing the Minister of War, may assume command of the necessary military units; has the right to demand information from all local authorities, bypassing the relevant ministries; The Ministry of Police is empowered to “enforce the law” across all ministries; The Ministry of Finance is obliged to inform the Ministry of Police about the "use of the amounts allocated to local authorities", etc.

Appointed Minister of Police Balashov Alexander Dmitrievich.

After the reorganization, a new structure and functions of the Ministry of Internal Affairs were approved, which until 1819 lost its primary importance in public administration in the law enforcement sphere.

The following remain in the Ministry of Internal Affairs:

• Office of the Minister with the editorial office of the newspaper "Northern Mail" and the Temporary Commission for "Affairs of the Tsar's Georgian House" (46 employees),
• Department of State Economy and Public Buildings with the Construction Committee and the Drawing Office (61 employees),
• Department of Manufactures and Domestic Trade (33 employees),
• Post Office (50 employees),
• Council of the Minister.

1812 g.
By the Imperial command in St. Fire station "for making fire-fighting tools."

"For the successful dissemination of art in the procurement of tools so useful and necessary for the general security, the Highest commanded that from each province be sent to St. Petersburg to learn this art, three of the capable, and if possible, already having some skill in this craft, such as: from locksmiths, blacksmiths, etc., so that these people, as they acquire the necessary knowledge, return to their provinces and bring benefits, both by preparing fire-fighting tools and teaching others this art " ...

March 1812
In view of the detachment of A.D. Balashov to the Western Army to carry out special assignments of the Emperor, the acting Minister of Police (and actually the Minister until 1819) is appointed count Vyazmitinov Sergei Kozmich - First Minister of War (until 1808), St. Petersburg Governor-General. According to the testimony of contemporaries: - "How many useless victims of suspicion fell in St. Petersburg (during the war), if not for the experience and philanthropy of SK Vyazmitinov."

June 12, 1812
French troops cross the Niemen and invade Russia. Begins Patriotic War of 1812.

The police in the war zone are reassigned to the army command.

June 10, 1815
Commander-in-Chief Barclay de Tolly ordered to elect in each cavalry regiment one trustworthy officer and 5 privates, "on whom to entrust the observation of order on the march, on bivouacs and cantonir-apartments, withdrawing the wounded during the battle to dressing points, capturing looters and etc. ". These ranks began to be called gendarmes(army police) and were subordinate to the corps commanders.

August 27, 1815
Separate gendarme teams are abolished, and the Borisoglebsk dragoon regiment, which previously carried out police service in the troops, is called the gendarmerie. At the same time, it was ordered "to complete gendarme regiment to convert exclusively the lower ranks, efficient, excellent behavior and generally capable of performing military-police service requiring special qualities. "

In the same year, the Life Guards gendarme half-squadron was established, which became the successor of the gendarme regiment established in Gatchina by Pavel I.

1816 – 1825

March 30, 1816
By the highest decree, all the internal guards of the Empire are officially called Separate corps of internal guards.

April 4, 1816
The Commander of the Separate Corps of Internal Guard is appointed E.F. Komarovsky.

May 5, 1816
A decree was issued on the replacement of the posts of police chiefs by retired wounded staff and chief officers.

1817 g.
Introduced step-by-step system for escorting prisoners... Responsibilities for the transfer are assigned to the Siberian units of the internal guard, relieving Cossacks, Bashkirs and Meshcheryaks from these functions. Stage teams consist of 28 people with a chief officer at the head and are located along the path through one station.

The stage teams are recruited from trustworthy people, "invisible in the fry service, but by no means mutilated, or for some reason unable to carry a gun," young soldiers are allowed to enroll only after two years of service.

February 1, 1817

City Guard, St. Petersburg

Approved provision "On the establishment of gendarmes of internal guard", developed by the favorite of Alexander I, cavalry general A.A. Arakcheev, who headed the State Council and the Committee of Ministers.

The gendarme guard includes metropolitan divisions (with a staff of 334 people) and gendarme teams (31 people) in 56 cities. The capital's gendarme divisions are subordinate to the chief police chiefs of the capitals, and the provincial and port gendarme teams - to the commanders of the local garrison battalions.

Later, the third, Warsaw division was established.

The duties of the gendarmes coincided with the duties of the internal guard, with the exception of collecting taxes and guarding the presence of places and forts.

August 1819
Prince appointed as Minister of Internal Affairs Golitsyn Alexander Nikolaevich .

November 4, 1819
Imperial decree issued "On the accession of the Ministry of Police to the Ministry of Internal Affairs".

After Vyazmitinov's death, there was no new appointment as Minister of Police. V.P. Kochubey , who again became the Minister of Internal Affairs, substantiated the need to return the functions of managing the police to the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Simultaneously with the accession of the Police Departments, the Department of Manufactures and Trade, and then the Post Department, is withdrawn from the Ministry of Internal Affairs.

July 22, 1822.
Imperial Decree issued "About the exiles"and Charter on stages in the Siberian provincesdeveloped by M.M. Speransky, appointed governor-general of Siberia in 1819.

The charter sets out in detail the procedure for sending and escorting prisoners' parties, the rules of movement by stage, the time spent on the way and the time of rest, the rules for maintaining documentation, etc. In each party, convicts are separated from exiles. Branding (late shaving of half of the head), shackling and chains, and chaining several people to an iron bar are practiced.

July - August 1823
Baron appointed as Minister of the Interior Kampenhausen Baltazar Baltazarovich .

August 1823
Appointed Minister of Internal Affairs Lanskoy Vasily Stepanovich .

1824 g.
After the "indignation" of the soldiers and non-commissioned officers of the Semyonovsky Guards Regiment, a secret police was created at the headquarters of the Guards Corps.

December 14, 1825
On the day of accession to the throne of Nicholas I in St. Petersburg, a group of officers and soldiers perform on Senate Square, which later became known as Decembrist revolt... The uprising is brutally suppressed, but an investigation into the conspiracy reveals a wide network of revolutionary noble communities throughout Russia. The main ones include the Union of Salvation or the Society of True Faithful Sons of the Fatherland (formed in 1816), the Union of Prosperity (1818), the Southern and Northern Societies (1821 and 1822, respectively), the Society of United Slavs (1823).

The main tasks of these societies were the overthrow or limitation of the monarchy, the abolition of serfdom, and the transformation of Russia into a federal state. Some of the ideas of the Decembrists, in particular the organization of the local police, were later used in the development of Russian bills.

1826 – 1832

Chief of gendarmes since 1826

The highest order established the position Chief of gendarmesto which Benkendorf Alexander Khristoforovich ... All gendarme units of the Internal Guard Corps are subordinate to him. The gendarme regiment with Benckendorff's troops only inspects.

July 3, 1826
The Imperial Decree "On the accession of the Special Chancellery of the Minister of Internal Affairs to His Majesty's Own Chancellery" was issued. The third branch of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery was created.

III branch of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery consists of four expeditions (16 employees) in charge of:

• The affairs of the "high police" and persons under police supervision.
• Sects and schisms, counterfeiting and forgery of documents, as well as places of detention of state criminals.
• Supervision of foreigners living in Russia.
• Correspondence about all incidents in the state.
• In 1842, the Fifth Expedition was formed - for theatrical censorship.

The Chief of the Gendarmes, Aleksandr Khristoforovich Benkendorf, is appointed the chief manager of the 3rd department.

The decree does not explicitly state that control over the activities of the administrative and police apparatus is entrusted to the gendarmerie, but this is repeatedly mentioned in secret instructions to gendarme officers.

1827 g.
For the suppression of vagrancy, correctional prison companies of the civil department are created.

April 1828
Appointed Minister of Internal Affairs Zakrevsky Arseny Andreevich.

September 29, 1828
The commander of the Separate Corps of Internal Guard was appointed General of Infantry, Tobolsk and Tomsk Governor-General, Kaptsevich Petr Mikhailovich.

Over the twelve years of leadership of the Corps, Kaptsevich managed to significantly raise the quality level of the personnel of the internal guard, mainly due to young recruits who were enrolled in the garrison battalions.

1829 g.
A.A. Zakrevsky publishes decree on distribution of affairs of the Ministry into three groups: "brought directly to the Sovereign", submitted to the Committee of Ministers, authorized directly by the Minister. In addition, a number of decrees are issued that determine the nature of cases originating from the provincial administration bodies to the Minister's office. The general tendency of these acts was "to limit the competence of the provincial authorities to insignificant matters" as a consequence of the central government's distrust of local governance.

The "Journal of the Ministry of Internal Affairs", the official publication of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, begins to be published.

1832 g.
The entire construction part of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (except for the construction of monuments) is transferred to the jurisdiction of the Main Directorate of Railways.

The Main Directorate of Spiritual Affairs of Foreign Confessions was attached to the Ministry of Internal Affairs.

Accepted Fire regulations, which regulated the performance of service in fire brigades, the main provisions of which were published earlier, and a number of articles contradicted each other.

Accepted " Regulations on pensionsall officials in the department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs ".

Government issues order on the division of criminals into 3 categories(important, unimportant and vagrants), prescribing to keep each category in a separate room. It was forbidden to keep women in the same "category" with men, and minors and minors - with adults.

February 1832
Bludov Dmitry Nikolaevich .

1833 – 1838

1833 g.
In order to reduce the correspondence, Bludov D.N. replaced the "special circulars for each order with one general printed one", which gave tangible results. In 1827, the Ministry of Internal Affairs carried out 35 thousand cases, and in 1833 - 17 thousand.

1834 g.
Under the Council of Ministers, statistical office, and statistical committees were opened for the provinces, the importance of which was pointed out by V.P. Kochubey in 1803

December 20, 1834
Approved new states of the Ministry of the Interior:

• Office of the Minister (51 employees),
• Statistical Office (9),
• Police Department Executive (42),
• Department of Spiritual Affairs (25),
• Economic Department (48),
• Medical Department (44),
• roving officials (20).

The main structural subdivision of the Ministry of Internal Affairs is the Police Department, whose functions include consideration of organizational and state issues of the local police and control over its activities, especially over the expenditure of funds. The number of officials on special assignments, who spend a significant part of their time on inspection and control missions, is increasing.

1835 g.
A new draft of the stage-by-stage system for transferring prisoners to Siberia "along the highway from Moscow to Nizhny Novgorod" has been drawn up.

1836 g.
Created Special Corps of Gendarmes, subordinate to the Chief of the gendarmes, at the same time to the head of the III department of His own Imperial Majesty's Chancellery. Gendarme units are withdrawn from the Separate Internal Guard Corps.

According to the position, the Gendarme Corps is divided into seven Districts, of which 6 are deployed in Russia and one in the Kingdom of Poland. The Districts include: provincial gendarme headquarters officers, gendarme divisions, gendarme teams of provincial, port and other cities. Gendarme Corps offices are subdivided into Main, District and Gubernskoye.

"Gendarme divisions in Capitals, provincial, serf and port teams are used:

• To the enforcement of laws and court sentences, if necessary.
• On the capture of thieves, runaways, innkeepers, the pursuit of peddlers and the dispersal of the law prohibited flocks.
• To pacify the riot and restore broken obedience.
• The pursuit and capture of people with prohibited and secretly transported goods.
• For the escort of extraordinary criminals and prisoners.
• To maintain order at fairs, marketplaces, church and folk festivals, festivities, all kinds of public conventions, fires, troop parades, divorces, etc.

Gendarme divisions and teams are also appointed for night patrols in cases where there is no other cavalry, and with such a calculation in the number of ranks that this outfit is not burdensome for divisions and teams.

The gendarmes assigned to the outfit are directly under the supervision of the Chiefs of Police, Chiefs of Police and mayors.

Each gendarme who catches a fugitive, a vagabond, or a person who does not have a passport, receives 10 rubles as a reward for this. banknotes to the account holder. "

Reformed Medical Department... According to the new position, it is headed by the Director (he is also the General Staff Doctor for Civil Affairs) and consists of two offices and a secretary table under the Director. The first branch deals with all cases "concerning the medical personnel of the Empire", the second - the cases of the medical police and forensic medicine.

The Department of State Medical Procurements is established, which is responsible for the procurement, storage, and distribution of medicines and medical supplies for the army, navy and "some government offices of the civilian department."

The staff of the Medical Council consists of a Chairman, three full and "indefinite number" honorary members (mainly professors and academicians).

The printing house inherited from the Medical College and affiliated with the Medical Department is transferred to the subordination of the Director of the Minister's Chancellery.

1837 g.

Junior Police Officer

The office of governor-general is abolished in almost the entire Empire. By the Imperial Decree, the highest local official becomes The governor, who is "... the main representative of the supreme power in the province, and therefore has supervision over all provincial institutions, ... the chief chief of police, guardian of justice and government interest, obliged to oversee the administration of duties, collection of taxes, etc." ...

Nikolai Ivanovich Gartung assumed command of the Separate Internal Guard Corps, who continued the attempts of his predecessors to improve the quality of the Corps, military training, and improve the material support of officers and soldiers. Under Gartung, the inner guard becomes a truly effective reserve for replenishing field troops.

A decision was made to staff the fire brigades with persons who had served their sentences, which often led to robbery and looting when extinguishing fires.

June 1, 1837
Simultaneously with the beginning of the reforms "in the state villages" provision "On the zemstvo police", which, having defined the new staffs and functions of the rural police, initiated the reorganization of these bodies. The regulation and further decrees more specifically defined the rights, duties and responsibilities of zemstvo police officers, established new, simplified forms of office work.

According to the new regulation, the police seat in the district is the zemstvo court chaired by the zemstvo police chief, consisting of assessors "from among the nobility and villagers." The police officer and the senior assessor are elected by nobles, rural assessors - by peasants, the rest - by provincial governments.

To "maintain peace and order" in the staff of the zemstvo court, new assessors were additionally introduced, heads of uyezd sections or camps, and they are called police officers. Bailiffsare appointed by the governor from among the candidates presented by the county assembly of nobility, and are obliged to live on their site, for which they are allocated funds for the purchase of housing. Subordinate to the police officers are sotsk and ten, chosen from 100-200 and 10-20 peasant households, respectively, which must weekly (except in emergencies) appear at the police officer's apartment with a report on all incidents in their villages.

"By granting the provincial authorities the right to determine the bailiffs, the Government meant to put these officials in the closest dependence on the highest police power (the governor), at whose disposal they are, and which is responsible for their choice; ... on the other hand, the added instruction so that the choice is directed mainly at the nobles who have real estate in the province, is intended to open the closest way to occupying these posts for people who know the position of the plots entrusted to them and, moreover, are connected with local inhabitants by their personal benefits and skills. "

1838 g.
New approved metropolitan Police Regulations... St. Petersburg is divided into 13 parts and 56 quarters. At the head of each unit, two private bailiffs are appointed, one of whom is responsible for administrative, operational-search activities, protection of public order, the second - controls the conduct of the inquiry and investigation. In the city administration of the capital, a new link is created in the form of the chief of police, who heads several city units, and subordinates to the chief of police. Every day the chief of police receives reports from private bailiffs and gives them orders. At the disposal of the police chiefs are police foot teams of retired soldiers and non-commissioned officers, as well as teams of city guards.

Strengthening of the outer guard service is becoming characteristic of the activities of the city police, for which the number of "police booths" is increasing in many cities.

1839 – 1855

March 1839
Earl appointed Minister of the Interior Stroganov Alexander Grigorievich .

September 1841
Earl appointed Minister of the Interior Perovskiy Lev Alekseevich .

December 11, 1841
Approved regulations on the Medical Council of the Ministry of Internal Affairswhere it stated:

• to decide that the Medical Council is the highest medical-educational, medical-police and medical-judicial place in the state,
• oblige each of the members of the Council, managing a separate part, to give a report on their actions in this part,
• that no measure of a medical device be submitted to the Supreme approval, without first discussing it in the Medical Council, etc.

1842 g.
Under the Department of the Executive Police, a temporary department is created for "the conduct of cases by reviewing the offices of the Ministry of Internal Affairs".

Gendarme regiment with the troops included in the Special Corps of Gendarmes.

March 1842
For conducting secret office work under the Minister of Internal Affairs the Special Chancellery is newly established... The General Chancellery was renamed the Department of General Affairs.

Positions established vice directors of all departments (previously such a position existed only in the Executive Police Department). This measure is associated with strengthening control over the activities of local government bodies. Heads of departments begin to travel more often to the province of the Empire.

September 17, 1844
Prince Alexei Fyodorovich Orlov was appointed the head of the III-rd department of His Imperial Majesty's own office.

January 2, 1845
The project of Count Perovsky about division of all cases submitted to the provincial government into 3 categories: ships that the board decided collectively; administrative, which were decided by the provincial government and approved by the governor; executive, decided by the vice-governor and advisers. The approval of the new order in all provinces ended in 1852.

1846 g.
Published by Charter of City Fire Societies, according to which the composition and functions of voluntary fire brigades were determined.

The most efficient teams include several units. For example, a water supply detachment ensures the delivery of water to the site of a fire, a pipe detachment pumps water to a burning object, a ladder detachment penetrates the upper floors and attic rooms, a clumsy detachment dismantles a burning building, a guard detachment protects the fire site from curious and looters, etc. ...

Fire brigade at work, St. Petersburg

1848 g.
A temporary department is created under the Executive Police Department to "monitor the progress of prisoners' cases."

Of the funds allocated for the construction of "public places", zemstvo fees and city revenues, about 500 thousand rubles. silver is allocated for the "construction of correctional prisons under the solitary confinement system."

1850 g.
By order of Nicholas I, the Ministry of Internal Affairs conducts first layoff... The number of civil servants is reduced by 17 to 270 full-time employees.

1852 g.
Supremely approved provision "On reduction of office work", after the introduction of which the staff of the Ministry of Internal Affairs was reduced by 67 officials (including two vice directors).

August 1852
Appointed Minister of Internal Affairs Bibikov Dmitry Gavrilovich.

1853 g.
A law has been issued according to which, in order to strengthen the police patrol service in cities (by analogy with capitals), police teams from the "lower military ranks". Their number is determined at the rate of 5 police officers per 2 thousand inhabitants and 10 police officers led by a non-commissioned officer per 5 thousand inhabitants. Police teams were manned by "lower ranks incapable of combat service" and were subordinate to the chief of police.

The divisions are being merged for "conducting cases by reviewing the offices of the Ministry of Internal Affairs" and "monitoring the progress of prisoners' cases" of the Executive Police Department.

March 17, 1853
The "Normal table of the composition of the fire department in cities" was approved... In accordance with this document, the staff of fire brigades is determined not by the "Highest resolution", but by the number of citizens.

All cities are divided into seven categories. The first includes cities with a population of up to two thousand inhabitants, the seventh - up to 30 thousand. The number of firefighters was set, respectively, 5 and 75 people recruited from the military department. According to the state, the position of fire fighting equipment and funds for its maintenance and repair was determined.

August 1855
Earl appointed Minister of the Interior Lanskoy Sergey Stepanovich.

1857 – 1861

1857 g.
Abolished military settlements, whose territory and administration, since the reign of Alexander I, were under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of War.

The office of the zemstvo district court is divided into two sections. The first deals with the issues of combating crime, maintaining public order, conducting an investigation, the second - controls the implementation of the instructions of the provincial administration by the rural police.

January 1957
At the direction of the Emperor, a Secret committee on peasant affairs "to discuss measures to arrange the life of landowners' peasants." Prince A.F. Orlov (in the absence of the Emperor), members: S.S. Lanskoy (Minister of Internal Affairs), P.F. Brock (Minister of Finance), M.N. Muravyov (Minister of State Property), Count V.F. Adlerberg (Minister of the Court) and others.

18 February 1858
The Emperor instructs the Ministries of Justice, State Property, Internal Affairs, and a Special Conference (consisting mainly of governors) to develop proposals for the arrangement of the county police.

In order to improve the health of the internal guards, a grandiose action of resettlement of "the most discredited lower ranks" with families to Eastern Siberia begins. For three years, about 13 thousand servicemen are moving to the Amur Territory. The number of crimes in the garrisons of the European part is sharply decreasing.

March 4, 1858
Within the framework of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, Central Statistical Committee, consisting of two departments: Statistical and Zemsky, chaired by the Minister's comrades. The committee was entrusted with the main work on preparing the peasant reform of 1861.

Since 1860, the Central Statistical Committee has been collecting and systematizing information about fires in Russia.

March 26, 1859
Department of state medical supplies from the Ministry of Internal Affairs is transferred to the War Ministry.

June 8, 1860
A decree was signed leaving the police only to conduct "initial inquiries about criminal offenses" and transferring preliminary investigation to judicial investigators, subordinate to "general judicial places".

April 1861
Earl appointed Minister of the Interior Valuev Petr Alexandrovich .

19 February 1861
Approved Manifesto on Peasant Reform.

The peasant emancipation project consisted of General Regulations (636 articles), Local Regulations (981 articles) and additional rules (192 articles).

July 27, 1861
Zemsky department The Central Statistical Committee of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, which dealt with peasant affairs, was transformed into an independent part.

1862

January 1862
Minister of War V.A. Milyutin presents to Alexander II a report that laid the foundation military reform 1860-1870s, according to which recruitment kits are replaced by military service.

January 1, 1862
Instead of the monthly "Journal of the Ministry of Internal Affairs", the daily newspaper "Severnaya Pochta" is published under the editorship of Academician A. Nikitenko.

December 25, 1862

Policeman

Accepted " Provisional rules on the organization of the police in the city and counties of the provinces according to the general establishment of governed. "The county and city police are united into county police departments, headed by county police officers, who are appointed by the government. Counties are still divided into camps headed by the police officer, sotsky and ten. In cities subordinate to the county administration, service is carried out by city and district bailiffs, as well as police overseers.

The association does not apply to the central and largest county towns, where the city police remain, the head of which, the chief of police, is appointed by the governor. The cities are divided into parts, headed by city bailiffs, assistant bailiffs and police overseers.

The organization of the police in St. Petersburg has its own characteristics, dictated by the operational situation. The Metropolitan Police is headed by the Chief of Police, under whom three chiefs of police are appointed to carry out inspection functions and two officials at special assignments. The main executive link of the metropolitan police structure is the department headed by the bailiff. He is subordinate to one officer and a clerk. The site is divided into districts, headed by police guards, city guards and janitors. Special instructions have been developed for the city and district police officers.

§1. The urban essence is the lower ranks of the Police Guard, which is established to monitor order and decency and to protect order and decency and to fence public safety through the prevention and suppression of crimes and the elimination of accidents.

§2. Policemen, by order of their immediate superiors, are appointed to serve as duty officers at mobile and permanent posts, are sent to maintain order in places where the public gathers and are used both by teams and separately for individual assignments in the service, such as: to search for criminals, to escort detainees persons, etc.

§ten. The police officers on duty must be constantly in visible places so that everyone in need of help can find them. Therefore, it is forbidden for them to enter courtyards, or in drinking and trading establishments, except for cases when it is necessary to stop the disorder, or when invited to provide assistance. When retiring from his post due to illness or because of an incident for a long time, the policeman on duty must let the police know so that the latter can intercede.

The police is charged with the obligation:

• to observe that the litter, garbage, rubble and any other uncleanness collected in houses are not thrown out into the street, but left in the yards until they are taken out by the garbage collectors;
• demand that janitors clean and sweep sidewalks, gutters and streets every morning. Snow, ice and litter should be piled up before they are removed by garbage collectors.
• stop all noise, shouting, abuse, quarrels and fights in the streets, squares and in public places,
• prohibit workers, janitors and the common people in general from loudly uttering obscene curses and obscene jokes on the streets,
• drunks who stagger or fall, and those who allow themselves to scream, make noise, scold, sing songs, detain and send to a private office building for sobering up. In case of a congestion of drunks, when it is not possible for one policeman on duty to restore order, he must whistle the city's neighboring posts and call for help from the nearest janitors.
• through janitors and porters of good behavior to learn about the dens of people suspicious and without passports, and report this information to your district overseer.
• demand that the janitors and watchmen near the shops regularly perform the night guard, do not allow them to sit on benches and sleep at the gate and instill that they pay attention to everyone entering and leaving the house to prevent theft, especially in the summer when the owners of apartments move to cottages. "

§2. Punisher Overseers, being under the direct supervision and order of the District Bailiffs, receive from them all instructions and orders in words and report on their actions in the service also orally.

§3. The policemen are directly subordinate to the district supervisors, as their closest superiors, receive orders from these latter, for the execution of which they are responsible as well as for disobeying the authorities.

§6. The district supervisors are entrusted with the closest supervision over the observance, within the confines of the entrusted to them, the rules regarding public improvement and deanery, the obligation to prevent and stop violators of these rules, to establish order, and the right, in case of non-fulfillment of their legal requirements, to draw up protocols on this.

§nine. When making an inquiry, the district warders ... collect the necessary information behind the scenes, using the close knowledge of the inhabitants of their neighborhood and the area, trying not to arouse any suspicion or distrust, not at all disturbing the residents with inappropriate interference in their affairs, not allowing themselves to enter the apartments and disturb their peace ; in no case should they arbitrarily carry out searches and seizures, unless they have a special order from the District Bailiff, who, in this case, is also responsible for the order made.

1863 – 1869

April 30, 1863
Central Statistical Committee of the Ministry of Internal Affairsfrom a collegial body it was transformed into a bureau processing statistical information. A Statistical Council has been established under the Ministry of Internal Affairs, composed of representatives of various ministries and departments.

January 1, 1864
"Regulations on zemstvo institutions"gets the force of law.

For local government in the county, a county zemstvo assembly and a district government are established, and in a province - a provincial zemstvo assembly and a provincial zemstvo government. The county assembly consists of vowels elected by the population of the county - landowners, city dwellers and electors from rural communities appointed by the volost gatherings. The provincial assembly consists of vowels elected by the county assemblies. The vowels (deputies) of the zemstvo assemblies are elected for 3 years. The councils become the executive bodies of the county and provincial assemblies.

New institutions are entrusted with the management of all local economy: food, medicine, "public welfare", roads, education, etc. "The government, represented by the governors and the Minister of Internal Affairs, oversees the actions of these bodies, mainly from the point of view of their legality The governor may suspend the decision of the zemstvo assembly if it contradicts the current legislation.

August 6, 1864
Abolished the Separate Internal Guard Corps... His duties are assigned to local and reserve (internal) troops. The provisions "On the military district directorates" and "On the management of local troops of the military district" were introduced.

The district troops include fortress regiments, provincial reserve, fortress battalions, district, local and stage teams, military prison companies subordinate to the chief of the district troops (with the rights of a division commander). In each province, the position of a provincial military commander (usually the commander of a provincial battalion) is established to lead local forces.

November 20, 1864
Within the framework of judicial reform, Judicial Chartersthat confirmed the removal of forensic functions from the police. The police conduct inquiries "by means of searches, verbal inquiries and covert surveillance, without making any searches or seizures in houses."

According to the new Statute, criminal trials are conducted as a competition between a lawyer and a prosecutor in the presence of a jury. Judges are appointed for life.

April 6, 1865
The Ministry of Internal Affairs formed Technical Construction Committee, who took over the affairs of the civil construction unit of the Ministry of Railways.

September 1, 1865
Put into operation Censorship Law... Scientific and expensive periodicals can be printed without prior censorship with the permission of the Minister of the Interior. If prohibited information is found in them, the perpetrators (author, publisher, translator, editor) are punished in court.

The Ministry of Internal Affairs established General Directorate of Press Affairsdealing with censorship.

1866 g.
After the attempt on the life of Alexander II, the St. Petersburg mayor created Department for the maintenance of order and public order, which must carry out operational work in a revolutionary environment.

1867 g.
St. Petersburg founded police reserve, which performed two tasks: training policemen and helping the police in carrying out patrol and guard duty.

January 27, 1867
Position established Chief Inspector for the Transfer of Prisoners, he is also the chief of the stage-transfer unit of the General Staff of the Ground Forces.

September 9, 1867
Approved position "On the Separate Corps of Gendarmes"... The Separate Gendarmes Corps includes:

• Headquarters;
• supervisory staff;
• administrations of the Caucasian, Warsaw and Siberian districts;
• provincial administrations (56);
• county offices (50);
• railroad management;
• St. Petersburg, Moscow and Warsaw divisions;
• urban equestrian teams (13).

The supervisory staff (renamed in 1870 as an additional staff) of non-commissioned officers should collect information about the mood of the minds in the Empire.

Only officers were allowed to be transferred to the Corps, "who graduated from a course of science not lower than secondary educational institutions and served in the army for at least 5 years."

March 1868
Timashev Alexander Egorovich.

With the transfer of Timashev, who was previously the Minister of Posts and Telegraphs, the Post and Telegraph Departments were created in the Ministry of Internal Affairs.

December 2, 1868
The Ministry of Internal Affairs has formed an Advisory Veterinary Committee and a Veterinary Department.

October 27, 1869
Begins to publish the "Government Bulletin" "common and the only official newspaper for all ministries and main departments."

1870 – 1876

Puncher

The new is highly approved " City position", according to which the main body of city government is the City Duma. The executive body is the city government. The City Duma is elected by citizens, divided into 3 categories - large taxpayers, medium and small, and the amount of payments made to the city treasury should be equally divided between the categories. Each category elects one third of the total number of vowels. Members of the council are elected by the Duma. The heads of both bodies are the mayor, elected by the Duma.

The responsibilities of public administration include: "managing the capital and property of the city, taking care of the improvement, ensuring food and health of the inhabitants, protecting against fire and other disasters, developing public education, etc."

The city administration "is obliged to take care of covering the costs of the police, fire department, military post, arrangement and maintenance of detention facilities."

The administrative authority, governor or mayor, is mainly responsible for monitoring "the legality of the activities of the city council and council."

May 19, 1871
Accepted " Rules on the procedure for the officers of the gendarme corps for the investigation of crimes"This act introduces the gendarmerie into the number of participants in criminal proceedings with the right to conduct inquiries on state crimes, when gendarmes are allowed to carry out such investigative actions as examinations, examinations, searches and seizures. The prosecutor had the right, with the consent of the head of the provincial gendarme department, to appoint a gendarme to conduct an inquiry. and for a criminal offense.

1873 g.
The military department is exempted from the "mandatory appointment of lower ranks in police and fire brigades," and the city administration is given the right to replenish the decline with civilians.

The police force is strengthening in two directions: increasing the number of staff on the one hand and increasing the "cultural level of agents" on the other.

The service life is set at 15 years, of which 6 years in service and 9 years in reserve. After the expiration of this period, the storeroom up to 40 years of age is assigned to the militia. "Only the age of the population is called to the lot every year, namely young people who, by January 1 of the year when the set is made, have passed twenty years of age ..."

In the internal troops, disabled teams are being abolished. Recruitment of recruits is carried out on a general basis, and not on a leftover basis.

Fire brigades are allowed to be replenished with recruits, freeing them from conscription.

1876 \u200b\u200bg.
In St. Petersburg formed Fire Tools Committeeheaded by N.N. Bozheryanov. One of the first works of the Committee was comparative testing of fire pumps.

1877 – 1880

1877 g.
The State Council establishes a Prison Reform Commission chaired by Secretary of State Privy Councilor K. Grot. The Commission is tasked with preparing proposals on the general procedure for the administration of prison affairs and on streamlining the system of criminal penalties.

The Prison Reform Commission, having studied foreign experience, puts forward a concept prison reform, based on the widespread use of punishment in the form of imprisonment in punitive practice.

• In terms of severity, the first place is put forward by reference to hard labor with deprivation of property, detention in prison, hard forced labor and compulsory settlement in Siberia at the end of the term of hard labor.
• Another type of punishment is confinement in a correctional house, with prior placement in solitary confinement cells. After serving their appointed time in solitary confinement, the prisoners work in shared workshops with complete isolation during the night and free from work.
• As a punishment, a short-term imprisonment is also introduced, including the constant keeping of the convict in solitary confinement with compulsory labor service.
• For state and war criminals, imprisonment in a fortress is provided.

June 9, 1878
Highest approved " Temporary regulation on police officers "... In the states of county police departments, the post of a police sergeant was introduced, occupying an intermediate position between the police officer ("in the production of searches") and sotsk and ten ("they were sensible leaders").

§2. The police officers, being directly under the control and order of the bailiffs, receive from them all instructions and orders and report to them about their actions in the service. In relations, both the bailiffs and the non-commissioned officers should, if possible, avoid written production, giving their first orders, and the last making their reports in words.

§3. Sotsky and ten's officers, being directly subordinate to police officers, as their closest superiors, receive orders from them, for failure to comply with which they are responsible as disobedience to the authorities.

§five. The police officers are obliged, in the areas entrusted to them, to protect public peace and monitor the manifestation of any actions and opinions directed against the government, lawful authorities and public order, as well as undermining good morality and property rights in society.

§sixteen. Police officers are obliged to bypass or bypass the area entrusted to them as often as possible, day and night, in all directions of large and country roads, visit villages, villages, townships, factories and factories, visit bazaars, fairs, rural marketplaces, marinas, temple holidays, in general such places, in which, for various reasons, a large number of people accumulate, more often inspect remote places, to convince - whether suspicious and dangerous persons are hiding in these places.

§20. Police officers make sure that the means in the villages are ready to stop the fires, and in the event of a fire they rush to the place of it, contributing to the ceasefire and take measures to protect the lives and property of the residents, at the same time inquiring about the causes of the fire. They also monitor the implementation of the fire safety rules established by the zemstvos.

§22. In case of floods, police officers take all measures to save the lives and property of residents. In order to prevent such accidents, they, if possible, invite residents to take the necessary precautions in advance. "

February 1879
Appointed Minister of Internal Affairs Makov Lev Savvich.

February 27, 1879
The Ministry of Internal Affairs created General Prison Administrationwhich took over the "prison affairs" from the Executive Police Department. At the same time, a Prison Council was established. The former governor of Saratov is appointed head of the new administration M.N. Galkin-Vrassky .

February-March 1880
In connection with the increase in the number of terrorist acts (including the explosion in the Winter Palace), a decree was signed "On the establishment in St. Petersburg of the Supreme Administrative Commission for the Preservation of State Order and Public Peace" - a temporary emergency body to unite the efforts of all judicial, administrative, police institutions in the fight against terrorism.

Count Loris-Melikov Mikhail Tarielovich, one of the heroes of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, is appointed as the chief head of the Commission.

The III Branch of His Majesty's own Chancellery and the Separate Corps of Gendarmes are subordinate to the Chief Chief of the Supreme Administrative Commission "in order to concentrate in one hands the supreme management of all bodies called upon to maintain state peace, and to bring complete unity to the activities of these bodies."

August 1880
Earl appointed Minister of the Interior Loris-Melikov Mikhail Tarielovich.

August 6, 1880
The management of the entire police force of the Empire is concentrated in the Ministry of the Interior.

The decrees "On the closure of the Supreme Administrative Commission, the abolition of the III branch of His Imperial Majesty's own Chancellery" and "On the establishment of the Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs" were adopted.

The functions of the III Division and the command of the Separate Corps of Gendarmes were transferred to the Ministry of Internal Affairswhere the State Police Department is formed.

November 15, 1880
State and executive police departments are merged into one State Police Department... The department consists of departments or office work, the composition and purpose of which varies depending on the situation in the country.

First director State Police Department becomes a baron Ivan Osipovich Velio.

1881 – 1885

1881 g.
Police forces in capitals and provinces are growing significantly. Not only the number of police officers is increasing, but also "their official position has been raised," "salaries and funds allocated for clerical and economic needs have been increased."

By analogy with St. Petersburg, the Moscow police are being transformed. The division of Moscow into parts and quarters was replaced by sections. Accordingly, the private bailiffs and district warders were replaced by district bailiffs, their assistants and district warders. The medical and police department was transferred under the control of the Moscow chief of police.

April 1881
Appointed by the Director of the State Police Department Vyacheslav Konstantinovich Pleve.

May 1881
Appointed Minister of Internal Affairs count Nikolai Pavlovich Ignatiev.

August 14, 1881
Accepted position " {!LANG-85c35598fc1af7e2546fa5921f9b9b90!}{!LANG-77aeb07c52aa60fec61989f89128f6c5!}

{!LANG-ef046cc2e20b8883d0aaef4a1b7a5774!}

{!LANG-dc6e4b80b5abbeae9174f7f73590d174!}

{!LANG-ee4efacecb526cf6bf5b7f7b834d2dcd!}

{!LANG-c57377e306877583941b3ebfb29e10a0!} {!LANG-fb4b4a268ff86c5b8b217c9c9a4d025e!}{!LANG-63000f0dfbbc1bad7378486074a7bfc1!}

{!LANG-9eb29aba5c552820e2cdf6665f9e775a!}
{!LANG-5193825f0326b7d1c46c9d8ce9dea471!} {!LANG-e37fc6247bb775d15221284756980ace!}{!LANG-d03d48d8322b0bfa8150506a7bb2e782!}

{!LANG-9b7e27d7f6ebaf566760db9314926b8c!}
{!LANG-88a7dd460f732a52d9d01f1e3e9b49a2!} {!LANG-d9849c29eeb1708c9675785db589981d!}

{!LANG-87ede0c621599ba9802cb03327647326!}
{!LANG-de768176363e84700a99a23b71a3ee96!} {!LANG-6066fd4ce9240cd62e1bda84846cfb3e!}{!LANG-0c6e4f18c4db46ec74c23a9d07b47218!}

{!LANG-f58482d39b9bfbd625118f5802a409e7!}
{!LANG-0650b5ee8f58efb1acc72ed721d48d3d!} {!LANG-b1b3683ebe1f42fdc48c063ef1b33c3b!}{!LANG-230cdc6429b73b992aa98a33d1de9458!}

• {!LANG-9784a0194c17964d0c7035876c2df432!}
• {!LANG-b9b6980853c1273191ea2a39090e9e97!}
• {!LANG-d689d0ca20e0bc63cdbc37dec96996ad!}
• {!LANG-5126eefd074a2606f8c16965d31152c9!}
• {!LANG-e29b3f6b75411debe5d42c33696feb76!}
• {!LANG-c6583f06838f31ac9349fa66b9449808!}
• {!LANG-33f108b8ab74fa6f8b3448c6c1e8413e!}
• {!LANG-bc05bd82a0cce65326469ccbe6d4c751!}

{!LANG-a10a305d4524f403cc20049b466e900e!} {!LANG-ab9c81092725c1e9571e6be221e7a13f!}.

{!LANG-923ed55ff8fbb53605bd7382f3db7d98!}
{!LANG-bf65e506860193177ed9b30401c7ef82!} {!LANG-cea91f6ffd19f11434df333789065ff7!}{!LANG-ef204b77c1348bc0d45fa0c4f057bfdc!}

{!LANG-eb3ea8728192ca0de1a6c2cdee8104a1!}

{!LANG-2f1c395505047fa6d79e6c8bde85e1ad!}
{!LANG-76f9b5f749781d98a4db8096e4e53c1d!} {!LANG-3559208a62229cc20640eefa2a591ba9!}.

{!LANG-bcf85004a3b0d8a56e6e818e230b6450!}
{!LANG-37420a5e5aaef484f694ecc631676eac!} {!LANG-9e358398a22774712f7535cf710ffd6d!}{!LANG-28b0f05b02e00bc8453b157e526106b2!}

{!LANG-3d67b54ab110b8a55b7c861dbdd8e9e0!}
{!LANG-de8d0a25e5733224b14d5a872d8a9bff!}

1886 – 1892

{!LANG-37da3f7b473f232745b7156add642d61!}
{!LANG-b338d8ecff2071472ed02cadb357aac9!} {!LANG-3aea62fcf8eb30fe92ea37010ae7008c!}{!LANG-74f7b71182b190d7ad120cfafbc1153b!}

{!LANG-d7bfa7a54639f60cb180b2a8a1bdab65!} {!LANG-c8ee32d15a18891e4f90cb3de26d79af!}{!LANG-c59778e7d63298c8ef03ac6abc40359e!}

{!LANG-c630ca01ed70201520f42365116b01ed!}

{!LANG-3052d47e093202416e48079205594ed4!}

{!LANG-bffa0b4627d25d377a380f03c11b3f29!}

{!LANG-1fd18f70f96f5bd0fea7570a95158a20!}
{!LANG-5ac4f051e9940d83af85dc0f93525a70!}

{!LANG-a0099678b257e7f4d98eac7f4666c34f!} {!LANG-eabaeea44973974faf4f71823b8d5732!}{!LANG-04fad13797723818858145b6604f0bcb!}

{!LANG-e894029524a1e82b72d69ce50a8d544b!}
{!LANG-cc04cf7076d3a58861b2cecc4be37a67!} {!LANG-de295aacbc83f3e9776b3d046f68bede!}{!LANG-b2f77c2b1d688fe1310542592cf00675!}

{!LANG-b90d32ab2b830ed6e3ed344c2f1394a7!}
Appointed Minister of Internal Affairs {!LANG-b491a8ff3365bcbab4b661fdf5211087!}

{!LANG-04991977dce2da909a2c4e4b39ceecb9!}
{!LANG-ca8a6d95870a78fdae489954b779910f!} {!LANG-fde5492b563bb10e6830512846049caf!}{!LANG-b708decb2e31141d02a7bff767680bcf!}

{!LANG-b6e36823d07c321fa83e03f65c6badad!}
{!LANG-2818fc8b39cb3a663d034405d08bc7c5!} {!LANG-187440dad580e9aab2d3f5cf658d9156!}{!LANG-21a9ceaba12543b1feaec06a8c9277b9!}

{!LANG-535521455fe11e8e5228f2678052dafc!}
{!LANG-32540371513f1d84195351b5899387bc!} {!LANG-f53a4637d54fac29c5e075bacbf34819!}.

{!LANG-14bee8046d28ed57203551f466d4714a!}
Accepted position " {!LANG-0c1c9d693ea140fb5335fc1933df4a87!}{!LANG-a313a376d452e0d84ac38017f0f6c011!}

{!LANG-0f5aedfac56e190ff04e1f2f76348179!}
{!LANG-819c27a5ba2bfc9843f581c3e99a519c!} {!LANG-3b65e614e98137926bc5698f56214a1c!}{!LANG-de1a4eeff690eb66a632e2ecbbce9180!} {!LANG-3fc7530c1f85dff2cea19b3c3c07a241!}{!LANG-25d5cc195f1676e1e4f769d56a2226dd!}

{!LANG-f8d383cb8a754f94b648c760c02645bf!}
{!LANG-70483136350304ddec4eebbd59f39c21!} {!LANG-966556023204780715cf499f776e02d2!}{!LANG-6f6caef99558eafffb33b02b49d0fa52!}

{!LANG-1730dded5d1d31eb10e9298a4d69c86a!}
{!LANG-db7c19362bc9b0167faeb2052aee518f!}

{!LANG-dbd2bf714df9a8a4c3b6fe2e0414b71d!}
{!LANG-b8094d3c57ab85ff0bf6dd230c68474d!} {!LANG-99f95e3a9da0e0dc0f92cbbe60f083fc!}".

{!LANG-35c4c3b8ee97d0dbe8a219989a1250f3!}
{!LANG-0ce4a3598e3966154f3d5a76733ed3fd!} {!LANG-6f0f0bf94734afd7e5a3ab17aa9f52af!}{!LANG-eb65dbcaf5900a741bda790e145c8ffb!}

{!LANG-3bc6bc42eb42ce1359247e39fb367cdf!}
{!LANG-4bcc407a2f3631c8b99d80a38b217dea!} {!LANG-6564f2877ee048b01356461f154a07c8!}{!LANG-90f706fdc7b6d7236d8d07ec52a8375f!}

1893 – 1905

{!LANG-a786c21335f06a29e2af66c3c4b39cfc!}
{!LANG-cc209b92af8b84acb70271263a0ab3e2!} {!LANG-ad6fd54d51c00268bf84b5a6967f4fd4!}{!LANG-b73131c6873cfc31ac2a106d59e4c974!}

{!LANG-cf8491bc68990c17bd3ed40002d677ac!}
{!LANG-1066d95d796dc853977a9ec3dc5b97a6!} {!LANG-2719c5d3b219c4d0880a3211f62da6a8!}.

{!LANG-06335795286c2558e57f7ec0ae6af5b7!}

{!LANG-dcdd749fe157671b91882c84bc3fafe8!}
{!LANG-554cdd74d8981b7c2c37995418c488ad!} {!LANG-02d016d766bd119d13dd67c90c3bd96d!}{!LANG-ebac745c3ab65e83d9141df2bc8212d3!}

{!LANG-8c6dc6e2db25cb47743e9bb2c6afc01b!}
{!LANG-fb684b1f36695183810587978cf94d76!} {!LANG-9d0c0de66a7ae4c7e182b6417bed9da9!}{!LANG-0c2bc53007125f974c23d778755b69fb!}

{!LANG-f0aadf8c1427d9e5c8d8b367910de104!} {!LANG-b1080a099c5c8783358dc5e504ff4cb5!}{!LANG-2458a5fd93d6b2a5cf121e6897249b5f!}

{!LANG-21dba1da76cf5710ff88969a5afbd658!}
Appointed Minister of Internal Affairs {!LANG-b055331070361a1eaa9fea189468b50e!} .

{!LANG-943097ef0d855a861e308fbb7110ab03!}
{!LANG-b40fb9db7583d3d52cb8870683651bfc!} {!LANG-72b3e6f3e35516b4e8d4b10092bc3abb!}{!LANG-29c3a0765b22af20d4d2320be6593bb9!}

{!LANG-48fc400c272daca9a855c5b4066dc473!}
{!LANG-b935165b11341d65c7830cc90414c638!} {!LANG-3893b6ea624b190343a18b1805396068!}.

{!LANG-3e7c1955fc4503d9e555a1f15f135aba!}
General Prison Administration{!LANG-e24d1e168b6b582a51d9eae3172e55d3!}

{!LANG-2b241b34b3f43aa720d869e273bd5687!}
{!LANG-32f0d6ce95f0ccda6be884f2b7a5d626!} {!LANG-c8f8d8c63734bb407b38c509eb6071ba!}{!LANG-e6c9fce553686ea53bfffaccf4aa9e77!}

{!LANG-4527c7e68507e7864c869cb9cf32a02b!}

{!LANG-bb7ed9d2ee29e83d4706bd10cb456ce9!}
Appointed Minister of Internal Affairs {!LANG-b6b6dc1a5406627e653559e4d2b6e779!}

{!LANG-ab4725facb4021662fc94719fd407f0d!}
{!LANG-f1b96da4c8525d1b965e4376eeb3dd12!} {!LANG-17a763c7ebdd927492366ee03db9c17f!}

{!LANG-e5174c987ae4a4ff33655bb69056d33d!}
{!LANG-a7ca7cc8a1c610078ce0e7ae3909581c!} {!LANG-14e063a19821e39f26f37db47ba1f882!}{!LANG-c2730389c2fe328ec557b4495b9573e5!}

{!LANG-6b995357da8ed1b84944fb61d6e9fe23!}
Appointed Minister of Internal Affairs {!LANG-37619d63c82f7be7dc24965364c6692e!}

{!LANG-9af5911334f7bf523fc8d3823ab73d3a!}
{!LANG-9fbfcc63cff15b130cc456658838142a!} {!LANG-90476e5fa184538249e637c742e3d120!}{!LANG-0f537ec7f3ead1a23158a66642526643!}

{!LANG-98b7f0a227b38059edb19df1d0a9acab!}

{!LANG-cc4689bc07b9b405613155040888295e!}

{!LANG-2799a783eaaca934f86a66ae6c9ecb1b!}

{!LANG-6c496b9263c18b4f2a127843032c51b7!}

{!LANG-cf5826011da43c669d58de053f52414d!}

{!LANG-2df5ef138388de4f3328db66f2607c60!}

{!LANG-f7e7ff68c6c4d92058a3ccf58a9ff1af!}

{!LANG-452a52a83bd4157c73535235e7bca788!}

{!LANG-6e84646da0774bdbcda7bf100084651a!}
{!LANG-550e434a697c92fc032b434f574158ea!} {!LANG-80053c3082d26f880583e5200fa6eac9!}{!LANG-0d95f1517abdb66323c332599b6b1bc3!}

{!LANG-d2270d170d2bf265f486e1c632e7f851!}
{!LANG-8efda22d91d377bace326993c9ee4ba2!}

{!LANG-06840fb79ff40c0018a3b040e276b902!}
{!LANG-cabe534da4010a0e38c56ccb9e219787!} {!LANG-c4d7942385246d4881ed24436009e2b8!}

{!LANG-a9e1277afc1e6e66dc2a1954fa3987f7!}
Appointed Minister of Internal Affairs {!LANG-7620ab79ba9f773891c438dadb959737!}

1905 – 1917

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