Active and passive vocabulary

Foreign languages, philology and linguistics

The vocabulary of the language is almost continuously replenished with new words, the emergence of which is associated with changes in the life of society by the development of the production of science and culture. Since the consolidation of new words and meanings in the language and especially the departure from the outdated language is a gradual process ...

active and passive vocabulary (stud.)

1. Active and passive vocabulary

1. Obsolete words

2.1. Histories

2.2. Archaisms

1. Neologisms

3.2. Sources of neologisms

Literature

__________________________________________________________________________________________

1. Active and passive vocabulary

The vocabulary of the language is growing almost continuouslynew words , the emergence of which is associated with changes in the life of society, the development of production, science and culture.

At the same time, the opposite process occurs in the vocabulary - the disappearance from its compositionobsolete words and meanings.

Since the consolidation of new words and meanings in the language and especially the departure from the outdated language -gradual process and long , in a language there are always two layers of vocabulary at the same time:

• active lexicon,
• passive lexicon.

To active vocabularylanguage applies to all vocabulary that is used every day in a particular area of \u200b\u200bcommunication.

To passive vocabularylanguage refers to words that are rarely used, have not yet become or have ceased to be necessary, familiar in a particular sphere of communication, i.e.

• words that leave the language (obsolete words),
• words that have not yet entered into general literary use or have just appeared in it (neologisms).

Border between active and passive dictionaries a) fuzzy(in sync) and b) movable(in diachrony).

a) Words active in one area of \u200b\u200blife or in one style of speech,less active or passive in other areas of life and styles of speech. For example, words that are active in everyday life can be passive in scientific or business speech and vice versa.

b) Active dictionary unitssubject to certain conditionscan easily go into passive stock:

• drummer (socialist labor),
• pager.

And the units of the liability can easily turn into an asset [Girutsky, p. 147-148]:

• neologisms: make-up artist, flash drive ...
• former historicisms: mayor, thought ...

It is necessary to distinguish between active and passive vocabularylanguage and individual native speakers.

Native speaker's active dictionary- a set of lexical units that the speaker freely uses in spontaneous speech.

Native speaker's passive dictionary- a set of LUs that are understandable to a native speaker, but not used in spontaneous speech.

It's obvious that

1. active and passive dictionariesspecific medialanguage significantly differ (quantitatively and qualitatively) from active and passive dictionarieslanguage;
2. active and passive dictionariesdifferent carriers language significantly differ by volume and composition depending on

• age,
• educational level,
• areas of activity [ERYA, p. 21].

1. Obsolete words

The loss of a word or one or another of its meaning is the result of a long processarchaization ... A word or meaning begins to be used less often and passes from an active vocabulary to a passive one, and then it can gradually be forgotten anddisappear from the tongue.

Obsolete words formcomplex system ... They are heterogeneousfrom point of view

• the degree of obsolescence,
• reasons for archaization,
• the possibilities and nature of their use.
• By the degree of obsolescencesome scientistshighlight necrotic and obsolete words.

Necroticism (< греч. nekros 'Dead') - words that are currently
completely unknown to ordinary native speakers:

• strict ‘paternal uncle’,
• swear ‘mock’ (cf. scold),
• zga ‘road’ (compare: the path, not visible).

These words are not even included in the passive stock of the language [SRYa-1, p. 56].

Obsolete words - real language unitshaving

• limited scope
• and specific stylistic properties:
• verst (old Russian measure of length ≈ 1.06 km),
• policeman (the lowest rank of the city police in pre-revolutionary Russia),
• to speak (to speak).

Many words that have disappeared from the active dictionaryliterary language, are actively used indialects:

• vered (a), vologa, put, prat ‘Wash’, bed 'Bed, bed' ...

Outdated and even outdated words from a given language can be stored in the active vocabularyother languages, primarily related. Wed:

• velmi ‘very’ (velmi - in Bel., velmi in Ukrainian),
• fat ‘fat’ - in white (cf. Russian obese),
• whole ‘Village, village’ - in Bel.weeska, in Polish. wie ś.

Words can be saved inunrelated languages \u200b\u200bif they were borrowed[FRYASH, p. 294]

• Depending on thereasons for archaization two types of obsolete words are distinguished:
• historicism,
• archaisms.

2.1. Histories - these are words that have fallen out of active use, because the objects or phenomena designated by them have become irrelevant or disappeared.

Those. appearance historicisms causedextra-linguistic reasons: the development of society, science, culture, changes in the customs and life of the people.

Histories have no synonyms in modern language and are used when necessary to name the disappeared realities:

• boyar, coachman, altyn (3 kopeck coin), chain mail [ERYA, p. 159].

Depending on whether or notthe whole word or only its meaning, distinguish 2 types of historicisms:

• lexical (full),
• semantic (partial).
• Lexical (full) historicisms - words (single and polysemous) that have gone out of active use as sound complexes along with meanings:
• caftan; mayor (in Russia until the middle of the 19th century, the head of a district town): the names of old positions are considered historicism.
• Semantic (partial) historicisms - obsolete meanings polysemantic words of the active dictionary:

mace: 1) a short wand with a ball-shaped heavy head, a symbol of the power of a military leader, in the old days - a shock weapon;

2) gymnastic hand-held apparatus in the shape of a bottle with a thickening at the narrow end.

1 LSV - semantic historicism, in the 2 sense it is an active vocabulary word.

Special rank constitute historicisms, which call the realities that have disappeared from the life of the speakers of a given language, but are relevant in the life of other modern peoples and therefore merge withexoticisms ( about exoticisms, see the lecture "Vocabulary from the point of view of origin"):

• chancellor, burgomaster ...
• Histories are used

1. as neutral words - if necessary, name the realities indicated by them (for example, in historical works);
2. as stylistic tool:

• to create a solemn style (for example, in journalism and poetry) [ERYA, p. 160].

2.2. Archaisms (Greek archáios ‘ancient’) - words displaced from use by synonymous lexical units [ERYa, p. 37].

Archaisms in modern language necessarilythere are synonyms:

• catching ‘hunting’, voyage ‘travel’, which ‘who’, drinking ‘poet’, Baltic ‘Baltic’, complacency ‘Smugness’.

If the reasons turning words intohistoricisms are completely clear, then finding out the reasons for the appearancearchaisms Is a rather difficult problem. For example, it is not so easy to answer the question why the words:

• finger, this, until now, will displaced from active use by words
  finger, this one, so far, if.

Depending on whether or notphonographic envelope words or one of itvalues \u200b\u200bare distinguished:

• lexical archaisms (obsoletephonographic envelope) and
• semantic archaisms (obsoleteone of the meanings the words).
• Lexical archaisms may differ from the modern synonym word in different ways.Depending on this, several groups are distinguished.

1. Actually lexicalarchaisms - words that are ousted from the active stock by words withwith a different root:

• victoria ‘victory’, that is ‘that is’, shuytsa ‘left hand’, actor ’actor’, always ‘constantly’, ‘very’, day ‘Morning dawn’.

1. Lexico-derivationalarchaisms differ from modern equivalents by the word-forming element:

• fish are ‘fisherman’, murderer ‘murderer’, answer ‘answer’;
• from veta ‘libel’, in a hurry ‘hurried’.

1. Lexico-phoneticarchaisms differ somewhat from the modern synonym in sound appearance:

• drinking ‘poet’, mirror ‘mirror’, smooth ‘hunger’, voxal ‘station’, ironism ‘heroism’, gishpanian ‘Spanish’.

1. In addition to lexical, there are grammatical archaismsAre obsolete word forms:

a) not existing in modern language, for example,

• vocative forms of nouns:devou! father! to the king!
• where did Russian land come from? (old perfect).

b) grammatical forms, which in modern languageformed differently:

• to the ball, give (‘give!’), perform and, die (‘Dead’ - old aorist) Russian ago, equal to y.
• Semantic archaism Is outdatedvalue a polysemantic word of an active dictionary, expressed in a modern language by another word.

Semantic archaism differs from semantic historicism by the fact that the meaning that is outdated for one sound complex is expressed by another sound complex.

Otherwise, semantic archaisms are defined asthe words , used earlier in a different meaning than now:

• belly ‘life’ (compare: not on the stomach, but on death), thief ‘Any state criminal’language ‘people’, shame, disgrace ‘spectacle’.
• Archaisms can only be used with a certainstylistic purpose:

1. to recreate the historical setting and speech flavor of the era;
2. to create a solemn style (for example, in journalism and poetry).

The process of archaizing vocabularynot always straightforward: it often happens that under the influence of extralinguistic factors, outdated wordscome back into active stock. Moreover, their meaning, as a rule, changes:

• historicisms: decree, ministry, duma, governor, mayor ...
• archaisms: tavern (in tsarist Russia - a drinking establishment of the lowest category) - in the modern youth jargon ‘a restaurant, a cafe where you can drink’.

Often, words that are outdated indirect meaning, in metaphorical meanings of the word are not perceived by speakers as outdated:

• master ‘A person who doesn’t like to work himself’
• a lackey ‘toady’
• slave 'Henchman, henchman' [Rakhmanova, Suzdaltseva, p. 154].

1. Neologisms

Neologisms (Greek neos ‘new’, logos ‘Word’) - words, meanings of words or combinations of words that appeared in the language at a certain period and are perceived by native speakers as new.

These are words that have not yet entered the active vocabulary.

Neologisms are also defined as words,arising from the memory of the generation using them.

The belonging of words to neologisms is a relative and historical property. They remain neologisms only as long as they retain a shade of freshness and unusualness [LES, p. 331]. E.g. wordcosmonaut appeared in 1957 and has not felt new for a long time.

In 1996, the words were perceived as neologisms:

• lawlessness, broker, GKChP, gekachepist, dajdest ‘press review’, riot police, riot police, teenager, thriller, phytodesign, voucher, video cassette, clip, sponsor, supermarket, shaping, shopping tour, charter (flight).

It happens that neologisms, without becoming facts of an active vocabulary, quickly become obsolete words. Wed:

• virgin land (originated in 1954),gekachepist, Dudayevites, pager.

In developed languages, the number of neologisms recorded in newspapers and magazines during one year istens of thousands ... First of all, these are words created fromprimordial language material. However, they are less noticeable than borrowings, so it often seems that there are more borrowings among neologisms.

The emergence of neologisms is explained

1. extralinguistic reasons: the social need for naming everything new,
2. intralingualreasons: tendencies towards economy, unification, consistency of linguistic means, variation of nominations with different internal forms; tasks of expressive-emotional, stylistic expressiveness [LES, p. 331].

Depending on whether the old word is different fromnew expression planor content plan, distinguish

• lexical neologisms (new words):shadowman, silovik, horror story, mobile phone, get-together, taxi, nanotechnology…
• semantic neologisms (newmeaning existing words):
• walrus ‘Winter swimming lover’ (this meaning was a semantic neologism for some time after its origin),
• truck ‘Cargo spaceship’,
• disk ‘Gramophone record’ (compare figurative meanings of words:throw, put on, run over, arrow, roof, negative),
• nanotechnology -(re.) ‘projects that require high costs, but give insignificant results’, a way of obtaining money by fraud ’;
• besides, allocatephraseological neologisms:
• White House - about Russian realities, credit of trust, unpopular measures, constitutional state, living wage, Funny price…

3.1. Linguistic neologisms and occasionalisms

(types of neologisms in relation to the language system)

• So far, it has been aboutlinguistic neologisms - i.e. words included in the lexical system, regularly used by native speakers.
• It should be distinguished from them occasionalisms (< лат. occasionalis ‘Random’) - speech phenomena created to perform an actual communicative task on the basis of models existing in the language.

Unlike neologisms, i.e.conventional words (lat.usus ‘Custom, habit’), which are characteristicreproducibility, occasionalismsare created in a speech act. Any neologism created on the basis of primordial material was once occasionalism. If a new word or meaning is used successfully and native speakersstart to reproduce him, occasionalismcan become a fact of language, i.e. linguistic neologism.

Among the occasionalisms, there are:

• copyright (artistic, scientific),
• unauthorized (colloquial, children's) [Popova et al., p. 63].

• fired, kyukhelbekerno (Pushkin); boiling (Tyutchev), snowdrifts (Yevtushenko),
• from fast food to fast life (I. Irteniev),
• fast court in Russian (MK from 5.06.01),
• nightmare (V.V. Putin).

It is possible to cite only a few examples of the author's neologisms that have become a fact of the national language:

• drawing, pendulum, attraction, elasticity, atmosphere, full moon, constellation, oxygen, hydrogen, prepositional (M. V. Lomonosov),
• influence, industry, being in love, absent-mindedness, humanity, touching (N.M. Karamzin),
• efface (F.M.Dostoevsky),
• mediocrity (I. Severyanin),
• midget (D. Swift) [SRYASH, p. 308].

• lawyer, candidate, homeopath, neuropathologist, yogsha ...
• This is my co-infarction (cf. roommate).
• I am always polite.
• Why are you turtle? Crawl quickly!

Wed words-winners of the competition "Word of the Year - 2009":

• brehlama, treporter, vampire, virotomaniac, zombie box (‘TV’), Medveputiya, networkyaz (‘Network jargon’).

Children's occasionalisms:

• hole maker (excavator), mill (‘Miller’s wife’)free (‘undressed’), harmonize (‘Play the accordion’)make a pastry (‘Eat pasta’).

In addition to linguistic neologisms and occasionalisms, many researchers distinguishpotential words - words that do not exist in the language, but, if necessary, can be easily created by native speakers according to productive word-formation models (rover, inspector, abstract - in fact, it is impossible to give examples of potential words; from potential they immediately turn into real).

3.2. Sources of neologisms

Neologisms result from

• creating new words and meanings,
• borrowing.
  1. Lexical neologisms are formedin different ways according to the word-formation models existing in the language:
• waste-free, homeless, homeless, dry closet;
• narrow-minded, foreign currency.

Semantic neologisms appear as a result of a change in the meaning of a word, in particular a transfer of a name:

• shuttle "A small retailer making regular, usually overseas flights to buy goods";
• ecology of culture.
  1. Borrowing different types:
• from other languages \u200b\u200b(external borrowings):marketing, sushi ...;
• from other areas of the given language (internal borrowings):
• for example, expanding the use of highly specialized terms: paradigm, alibi;
• the transition of words from dialects to the literary language:plow, nap, mumble, hype;
• updating obsolete words (duma, winter road 'A road paved straight in the snow'leggings, voyage) [LES, p. 331].

See diagram 1 "Types of lexical units of active and passive stock" on p. 7.

Scheme 1.

Lexical units

┌──────────────┴─────────────┐

active passive

stock stock

┌───────────────────┴─────┐

obsolete words new words

┌───────┴──────┐ ┌────────┼─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─┐

historicisms archaisms neologisms occasionalisms potentially.

(no synonyms) (there are synonyms) (hammer) words

┌───┴───────┐

semantic lexical┌─────────────────┐

(helmet) (boyar ) semantic lexical

(diplomat ‘briefcase’) (electorate)

┌─────────────────┐

semantic lexical

(belly ‘life’) ┌────┴───────────┐

actually partial

lexical

(finger) ┌───────────────────┐

lexico lexico lexico

phonetic. word form. grammatical.

(peet) (fisherman) (hand)

Literature

Barlas L.G., Infantova G.G. Russian language. An introduction to the science of language. Lexicology. Etymology. Phraseology. Lexicography. / Barlas L.G., Infantova G.G., Seifulin M.G., Senina N.A.M .: Flinta, Science. 2003.2.4. Vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of its active and passive stock. S. 194-200.

T.I. Vendina Introduction to linguistics. M .: Higher school, 2001. Historical changes in the vocabulary. S. 165-174.

A. A. Girutsky Introduction to linguistics. Minsk: TetraSystems, 2001. Chronological stratification of the vocabulary. S. 145-156.

V. I. Kodukhov Introduction to linguistics. M .: Education, 1987 (and other editions). Archaisms and Historicisms. Neologisms of language and neologisms of speech. S. 187-188.

LES - Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary. M .: Soviet encyclopedia, 1990. Active dictionary. P. 22. Neologisms. S. 262–263. Obsolete words. P. 540.

Popova T.V. and others. Neology and neography of the modern Russian language. / Popova T.V., Ratsiburskaya L.V., Gugunava D.V.M .: Flinta, Nauka, 2005.165 p.

Rakhmanova L.I., Suzdaltseva V.N.Modern Russian language. Vocabulary. Phraseology. Morphology. M .: Publishing house of Moscow State University: Publishing house "CheRo", 1997. Old and new in vocabulary. S. 153-169.

A. A. Reformatsky Introduction to linguistics. M .: Aspect Press, 1997. § 24. Vocabulary of the language. S. 133-139. § 84. Historical changes in the vocabulary of the language. S. 471–478.

FRY – 1 - Modern Russian language. Part 1. Introduction. Vocabulary. Phraseology. Phonetics. Graphics and spelling. / N. M. Shansky, V. V. Ivanov. M .: Education, 1981. Vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of its active and passive stock. S. 56–66.

Sryash - Modern Russian language. Phonetics. Lexicology, Phraseology / ed. P.P. Shuby. Minsk: Progress, 1998. Vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of active and passive stock. S. 288-310.

Shaikevich A. Ya. Introduction to linguistics. M .: Academy, 2005. § 61.Changing vocabulary. S. 172-176.

ERYA - Russian language. Encyclopedia. Moscow: Great Russian Encyclopedia - Bustard, 1997. Active Dictionary. P. 21. Archaisms. S. 37–38. Histories. S. 159-160. Neologisms. S. 262–263. Occasionalisms. S. 283–284.

PAGE 7

And also other works that may interest you
10924.		Design and production of virobes from sheet metal or dart. Robot design	57.5 KB
	Topic for the lesson: Design and production of virobes from sheet metal or a dart. Designed for the robot. Demonstration of finished projects. Post the necessary information for the project in the information dzherels. Folding eskizu. Meta lesson: Forming less new ideas for
10925.		Evolution is a sign of pratsi. The machine is a kind of technology. Appointment of that vicarystannya of machines	41.5 KB
	Topic for the lesson: Evolution znaryad pratsi. The machine is a kind of technology. Appointed that victoriannya machines. Meta: Navchalna: Lost the knowledge of technology and machines, technical types of machines and mechanisms of formulation, and a decrease in the size of machines. Vikhovna: vikhovati vіdpovіdne with ...
10926.		Designing method (combining method). Planning a robot with a project	49.5 KB
	Topic for the lesson: Methods of designing a method of combining. Planning robots for designing and preparing virobu. Meta lesson: Formation of less necessary for a robot with technical literature with a joke of sound, virob, analysis and copying of nakr
10927.		Understanding about mechanics	46.5 KB
	Topic 3: Understanding about mechanics. Meta: Navchalna: formulate the knowledge of the witch and the knitting on the basis of the theme. Vikhovna: vikhovuvati in science is thriftyly placed before someone else's work. Aesthetically pleasing objects of pratsi culture. Razvivayucha: razvivati \u200b\u200bat schoolchildren special ...
10928.		Get details for virobu. See zєnan from sheet metal	46 KB
	Topic for the lesson: Getting the details of the virobu. See the knowledge of sheet metal. Practical robot: preparation of design robots .. Meta: know-how by means of bending of sheet metal by means of ways of creating for additional rivets and folded seams; vihovuvati were saved ...
10929.		Designed for the robot. Folding eskizu and armchair virobu. Technical design	42 KB
	Topic: Design of the robot. Foldable eskizu and armchair virobu. Technical design. Meta: learn about the rules of chairing in the systems of upright projections; navchit vikonuvati armchairs on two oppositely perpendicular projection area on two squares
10930.		Take a dart with nippers. Tool and attachment for virivnuvannya and drotta	40.5 KB
	Topic for the lesson: Priyomi Rizannya dart with wire cutters. An instrument and an attachment for virivnyuvannya and drotta. Occupation meta: Navchalna: Prevent the acquisition of virobivancies from the dart and cutting the dart with wire cutters.
10931.		Razm_channya by template, area razm_channya	44 KB
	Topic for the lesson: Razm_channya for the template area of \u200b\u200bthe layout Meta lesson: 1. Formulate knowledge from the scientists about the development of flat virobes from the tree; 2. Knowing the knowledge of the signs and buddovaya of the development of the tool; 3. Formulate a few tips from the scientists when you visit ...
10932.		Slusar workbench. Organization of the workmanship at the slusarny main. Rules of infinite pratsi	38.5 KB
	Topic: Slyusarny workbench. Organization of the workmanship at the slusarny main. The rules are infallible. Meta lesson: Learning about the organization of the workmanship of the rule of infallible work and the internal order of the school mains. Rosvivati \u200b\u200bwas spared the memory

Plan

Introduction

1. The concept of active and passive stock of language

2. Vocabulary of the Russian language in terms of active and passive stock

2.1 Active dictionary

2.2 Passive vocabulary

Conclusion

List of references

Introduction

active passive vocabulary speech

1. The concept of active and passive stock of language

The assertion that obsolete vocabulary belongs to the passive stock of the language is generally accepted. Many have written about this. With this, as far as is known, no one argued. However, as the analysis of lexicographic theory and practice shows, there are significant "distortions" in the understanding of the relationship between the concepts of "obsolete vocabulary" and "passive vocabulary of the language" (or, in other words, "periphery of the language"). But before talking about them, let us recall what content linguists traditionally put into the concept of "passive stock of language" periphery of the language "and" outdated vocabulary ".

As you know, the concept of active and passive stock of language in lexicographic theory and practice was introduced by L.V. Shcherba (in the work "Experience of the General Theory of Lexicography"). Shcherba referred to the passive vocabulary words that have become less common and the range of use of which has narrowed. In modern linguistics, there are several points of view on the passive vocabulary of the language. In one case, linguists include in the passive vocabulary of the language "a part of the vocabulary of the language, consisting of lexical units, the use of which is limited by the features of the phenomena they signify (names of rare realities, historicisms, terms, proper names) or lexical units known only to a part of native speakers (archaisms , neologisms), used only in certain functional varieties of language (book, colloquial and other stylistically colored vocabulary) ". This understanding of passive lexical stock is reflected in the "Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary" and is shared by B.P. Barannikova and A.A. Reformatsky, D.E. Rosenthal and M.A. Telenkova and other researchers. Proponents of a different point of view argue that a passive dictionary is "a part of the vocabulary of a language, understandable to everyone who speaks a given language, but little used in live everyday communication; passive vocabulary is made up of obsolete or outdated words, but not dropped from the vocabulary of the language, many neologisms, who have not yet entered the usual usage. " This understanding of the passive vocabulary of the language is reflected in the encyclopedia "Russian language" and is supported by N.M. Shansky, M.I. Fomina, F.P. Sorokoletov and others. This point of view on the passive vocabulary is more "narrow", since includes only a part of the outdated (outdated) vocabulary and a part of neologisms. Both are marked by the presence of a temporal component in the characteristic, low frequency of use and, as a consequence, a peripheral position in the dictionary. Another opinion on this issue is based on the differentiation of the concepts of language and speech: "the concepts of" active "and" passive "vocabulary primarily refer not to language, but to speech, i.e. to the linguistic activity of individual individuals, therefore active and passive dictionaries different people belonging to different social groups, professions, different localities may not coincide. " N.M. Shansky warns that the passive vocabulary of a language should not be confused with the passive vocabulary of a particular native speaker, depending on his profession, education, daily work, etc. ". As noted by ZF Belyanskaya," the fuzzy distinction between the phenomena of language and speech affected the attribution of L.А. Bulakhovsky to the passive vocabulary of the language of words of special use, archaisms, neologisms, dialectisms, and many borrowings, and A.A. Reformed also expressive expressions. "Some scholars rejected the term" passive vocabulary. "Thus, P.Ya. , "which speakers use in conversation about objects of thought that are alien and alien to their everyday life." P.N. Denisov, describing the lexical system in terms of a field structure, includes obsolete vocabulary in the peripheral zone. Traditionally, the term obsolete vocabulary is used as a generalizing concept in relation to the terms historicism and archaism. At the same time, historicism refers to obsolete words that have gone out of use due to the disappearance of those realities that they called. Archaisms include lexemes that name existing realities, but displaced for linguistic or extralinguistic reasons from use by synonymous units. , historicisms have no parallels in modern language, while archaisms, on the contrary, have in modern Common language synonyms. Linguists do not have a consensus on whether to consider historicisms as facts of the modern language, located on its periphery, or as facts that have gone beyond the boundaries of the language and, therefore, dropped out of its lexical system.

2. Vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of active and passive stock

Vocabulary is the most fluid language level. Changing and improving vocabulary is directly related to the production activities of a person, with the economic, social, political life of the people. The lexicon reflects all the processes of the historical development of society. With the appearance of new objects and phenomena, new concepts arise, and with them - the words for the names of these concepts. With the withering away of certain phenomena, they go out of use or change their sound appearance and the meaning of the words that call them. Considering all this, the vocabulary of the common language can be divided into two large groups: an active vocabulary and a passive vocabulary. The active vocabulary includes those everyday words, the meaning of which is understandable to people speaking the given language. The words of this group are devoid of any shades of obsolescence.

The passive vocabulary includes those that are either outdated, or, on the contrary, due to their novelty have not yet received widespread recognition and are also not used everyday. Thus, the words of the passive stock are divided, in turn, into obsolete and new (neologisms). Those words that have fallen out of active use are among the outdated, For example, the words that have ceased to be used in connection with the disappearance of the concepts that they denoted are clearly outdated, for example: boyar, clerk, veche, archer, oprichnik, vowel (member of the city council), mayor, etc. Words of this group are called historicisms, they are more or less known and understandable to native speakers, but they are not actively used by them. In modern language, they are addressed only when it is necessary to name obsolete objects, phenomena, for example, in special scientific and historical literature, as well as in the language of works of art in order to recreate a particular historical era. If the concept of an object, phenomenon, action, quality, etc. is preserved, and the names assigned to it, in the process of language development are replaced by new ones, more acceptable for one reason or another for a new generation of native speakers, then the old names also pass into the category of passive vocabulary, in the group of so-called archaisms (Greek archaios - ancient). For example: before - because vezhdy - eyelids, guest - merchant, merchant (mostly foreign), guest-trade, etc. Some of the words of this type are practically already beyond the even passively existing lexical stocks of the modern literary language. For example: thief - thief, robber; stryi - paternal uncle, stryinya - paternal uncle's wife; uy - maternal uncle; stride - down; sling - 1) roof and 2) celestial vault; vezha - 1) tent, wagon, 2) tower; fat - fat, lard and many others. Some of the archaisms are preserved in the modern language as part of phraseological units: getting into a trap, where a trap is a rope spinning machine; you can't see where the zga (stga) is the road, the path; beat with the forehead, where the forehead is the forehead; rage with fat, where fat is wealth; protect as the apple of an eye, where the apple is the pupil, etc.

Active dictionary - these are the words that the speaker of the given language not only understands, but also uses himself.

The words of the main vocabulary fund, of course, form the basis of an active vocabulary, but not an exhaustive one, since each group of people speaking a given language also has such specific words of expression that for this group are included in their active vocabulary, daily or are used, but not necessarily as facts of an active vocabulary for other groups of people who, in turn, have other words and expressions.

Thus, the words of the main vocabulary fund are common for the active vocabulary of the population, while the words SPECIFIC will be different for the active vocabulary of various groups of people.

Passive vocabulary - these are the words that the speaker of the given language understands, but does NOT use himself. For example: special techniques, disciplines, expressive expressions. The passive vocabulary includes both obsolete words (archaisms, historicisms) and new words denoting new concepts (neologisms).

The concepts of active and passive vocabulary are very important when learning a foreign language.

It should be borne in mind that often passive vocabulary turns into active.

Example: veto, preamble, officer

The reverse process can also occur: the transition of an asset to a liability.

Example: People's Commissar, Pioneer, Decree

Vocabulary. Ticket 16.

Types of dictionaries.

First, all dictionaries can be divided into two groups: linguistic and non-linguistic... The difference lies in the fact that the former collect and describe lexical units of the language from one point of view or another, while the latter lexical units serve only as a starting point in describing non-linguistic phenomena. For this reason, in non-linguistic, or encyclopedic, dictionaries, we will not find interjections, pronouns, official words, as well as most adverbs, verbs, adjectives that are not terms.

Secondly, all dictionaries can be divided into are common (for example, TSB - Great Soviet Encyclopedia) and specialcovering a specific branch of science (for example, medical dictionaries).

Thirdly, dictionaries are monolingual, bilingual and multilingual... Monolingual dictionaries are explanatory, giving the interpretation of words (or stable expressions) of a language by means of the same language. Interpretation is given with the help of a logical definition of conceptual meaning ("record holder is an athlete who has set a record"), selection of synonyms ("annoying - annoying, intrusive"), in the form of rendering a grammatical relation to another word ("cover is an action according to the meaning of verbs to cover "). Emotional and expressive connotations are indulged with the help of special labels (disapproved, contempt, joking, ironic). Individual meanings are illustrated with examples or quotations from works of art. Usually, explanatory dictionaries also give a grammatical characteristic of a word, indicating with the help of special marks a part of speech, grammatical gender of a noun, a kind of a verb, etc.

Opposed to explanatory dictionaries are translations, most often bilingual (say, Russian-English) and sometimes multilingual. Instead of interpreting words in the same language, they provide their translations into another language. Depending on who the dictionary is intended for, it can be composed in different ways. So, in the Russian-English dictionary for the English "right", ie the English part will be less detailed, while the Russian-English dictionary for Russians will explain in detail the difference between the equivalents. In addition, there will be given grammatical and stylistic notes, stress, etc.

TO common dictionaries include those that consider all layers of vocabulary, but from a specific angle of view.

Such are, for example, frequencydictionaries. Their task is to show the degree of use of words in speech (which practically means the frequency of their use in a certain array of texts). These dictionaries allow you to draw interesting conclusions about the functioning of words and grammatical categories.

Further, we note the grammatical dictionaries that give a detailed grammatical description of the word; derivational (derivational), indicating the division of words into their constituent elements; collocation dictionaries listing typical word contexts.

Etymological dictionaries contain information about the origin and initial motivation of words. In these dictionaries, the correspondences of a given word in related languages \u200b\u200bare usually given, hypotheses of scientists regarding its etymology are presented.

A special group is made up of various historical dictionaries. Some of them aim to trace the evolution of each word and its individual meanings over the course of the written history of the respective language. Such, for example, is the German Dictionary, started by the brothers Grimm and published over a hundred years (1854-1961). Another variety includes dictionaries of past periods of the history of the language, for example, the Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 18th century. (published since 1984), as well as dictionaries of the language of writers, for example, Pushkin's Dictionary of the Language (in 4 volumes, 1956-1961).

General dictionaries include complete dialectal dictionaries, that is, those that, in principle, cover all the vocabulary that exists in dialectal speech on the territory of one dialect (or group of dialects), both specific to a given dialect and coinciding with the vocabulary of the common language.

Common are also spelling and orthoepic dictionaries for purely practical purposes.

Among the special linguistic dictionaries interesting are various phraseological dictionaries (they can be translated and monolingual), dictionaries of "winged words" and dictionaries of folk proverbs and sayings.

Of others special linguistic dictionaries are distinguished by dictionaries of synonyms (monolingual and translation), dictionaries of antonyms, homonyms, dictionaries of the so-called "false friends of the translator", that is, words that are similar in sound and spelling in any two languages, but divergent in meaning (for example, in Bulgarian, mountain means "forest" and not at all "mountain", in English magazine "magazine", not "shop").

Special include and differential dialect dictionaries, that is, those that contain only dialectal vocabulary that does not coincide (materially or in meaning) with the national one. Such a dialect dictionary can be either a dictionary of one dialect, or a dictionary of many or even (in principle) all territorial dialects of any language. Slang and argot dictionaries also belong to differential dialectal ones.

We should also mention dictionaries of foreign words, abbreviations, various dictionaries of proper names (personal, geographical, etc.), dictionaries of rhymes.

There are also various intermediate, transitional and mixed types of dictionaries. So, transitional from linguistic to non-linguistic dictionaries are dictionaries of terms of various sciences and branches of technology. These dictionaries are monolingual, bilingual and multilingual. Finally, there is a type of universal dictionaries, both explanatory and encyclopedic, including etymological and historical references, sometimes essential material foreign language quotes, and provided with drawings, if necessary.

Words in dictionaries can be arranged in different order. Most commonly used alphabetical order. Sometimes "nesting" is used, that is, the combination of words linked by a common root within one dictionary entry, even if this violates the alphabetical sequence. In fact, in these cases, there is a deviation from the alphabetical order of words towards the alphabetical order of roots.

We have a special use of the alphabetical principle in reverse(inversion) dictionaries. The words in them are arranged in alphabetical order not of the initial, but of the final letters of the word: a, ba, baba, toad, amoeba, etc., ending in words ending in "yaya".

In contrast to dictionaries compiled according to the principle of the alphabet, there are ideographic (thematic) dictionaries that group words either according to the generality of phenomena of reality (for example, pieces of furniture); or according to the generality of concepts that form a particular area of \u200b\u200bknowledge, where, for example, the vocabulary of a certain section of science is given, where words are selected and arranged in accordance with the systematics of these scientific concepts.

IN frequency dictionaries, words are arranged descending frequency, and sometimes according to the headings of grammatical classification (but parts of speech), but along with this the alphabetical principle is also used.

IN hieroglyphiclanguages \u200b\u200bsuch as Chinese and Japanese, the characters in the dictionaries are sorted by keys, or radicals, that is, according to the system of elements of hieroglyphs that carry semantic meanings. Each key has its own number, and dictionary sections correspond to this numbering.

“William Shakespeare's dictionary, according to researchers' count, is 12,000 words. The dictionary of a Negro from the cannibalistic tribe "Mumbo-Yumbo" is 300 words. Ellochka Shchukina easily and freely got along with thirty ", - everyone knows this quote from" The Twelve Chairs "by Ilf and Petrov. The satirists, and along with them the readers, laughed a lot at the narrow-minded and undeveloped, but overly self-confident and arrogant Ellochka, all of whose interests, thoughts and emotions easily fit into thirty words. Meanwhile, starting to write texts, many, without noticing it themselves, turn into the cannibal Ellochka. Whatever they want to write about, the same "Ho ho!" and "Rude, kid!" In this lesson, we will talk about how to get rid of the problem of the cannibal Ellochka, expand your vocabulary. And in the next lesson we will learn how to learn how to use it correctly.

Lexicon

Lexicon (dictionary, lexicon) is a set of words that a person understands and uses in his speech.

Vocabulary is usually divided into two types: active and passive.

Active vocabulary - these are the words that a person regularly uses in oral speech and writing.

Passive vocabulary - this set of words that a person knows and understands by ear or when reading, but does not use them himself. You can check your passive vocabulary on this site.

Usually the volume of the passive vocabulary exceeds the volume of the active vocabulary several times. At the same time, the volumes of active and passive vocabulary are movable quantities: a person constantly learns new words and at the same time forgets or stops using the words that he has already learned.

What should be the volumes of active and passive vocabulary? Suddenly it turned out that the answer to this question is rather difficult. The volume of V.I. Dahl has two hundred thousand words, the academic dictionary of the modern Russian literary language - about one hundred and thirty thousand, the latest edition of Ozhegov's explanatory dictionary - seventy thousand words. Obviously, such values \u200b\u200bexceed the vocabulary of even the most erudite person. Unfortunately, there is no exact scientific data on what the average active and passive vocabulary of an educated adult is. Active vocabulary scores range from five thousand to thirty-five thousand words. As for the passive vocabulary, the range is from twenty thousand to one hundred thousand words. Most likely, the truth, as always, lies somewhere in between. It is reasonable to assume that the active vocabulary of an adult reaches about fifteen thousand words (as you know, the active vocabulary of such a master of the word as Pushkin was about twenty thousand words), and the passive vocabulary - forty-fifty thousand words (it is difficult to imagine an ordinary person, who would know all the meanings of words from Ozhegov's dictionary).

There is a simple way to roughly estimate the volume of passive vocabulary. Take an explanatory dictionary, for example, the same Ozhegov dictionary, open it on an arbitrary page, count how many of the defined words you know. Be honest with yourself: if a word seems familiar to you, but you do not know its meaning, then you do not need to count this word. Next, multiply this figure by the number of pages. Of course, keep in mind that this is an approximate result: you must assume that all pages contain the same number of articles, from which you know the same number of words. For the purity of the experiment, you can repeat these steps several times. However, you still won't get an exact result.

If you are too lazy to tinker with the dictionary and calculations yourself, you can use our test.

Ways to expand vocabulary

When writing texts, it is very important that the words used are as varied as possible. This, firstly, allows you to most accurately express your thought, and secondly, it makes the perception of the text easier for the reader. There are several rules to help you expand your vocabulary. They were designed primarily for people learning foreign languages, but can also be used effectively for their native language.

Passive vocabulary

Read as much as possible. Reading - this is one of the main sources of new information and, accordingly, new words. At the same time, try to choose literature of the highest possible level - it does not matter whether it is about fiction, historical literature or journalism. The higher the level of the authors, the greater the chance that they use a variety of vocabulary, and most importantly, they use words correctly. This way you will not only memorize new words, but also the correct ways to use them.

Don't be afraid to sound ignorant. Many people feel extremely embarrassed when their interlocutor seems very educated, well-read and uses a lot of unfamiliar words. In such a situation, many are afraid to be branded as ignorant, and therefore hesitate to ask about the meaning of a new word. Never do this. It is always better to ask about a word you are not familiar with than to remain in the dark for life. Do not think that you will look this word in the dictionary when you get home. You just forget it. If your interlocutor is really smart, your question will never seem funny to him.

Use a dictionary. It is useful to have a collection of academic dictionaries and encyclopedias at home that you can refer to when needed. Naturally, good dictionaries are not cheap, often in small print runs, and take up a lot of shelf space. Fortunately, with the development of the Internet, the problem of accessing dictionaries has been solved. Now you can find dictionaries and encyclopedias on almost any topic. Portals are quite convenient to use: slovari.yandex.ru and www.gramota.ru.

Active vocabulary

The above tips help to expand, above all, a passive vocabulary. However, the main theme of our lessons is effective writing. Therefore, the goal is not only to learn new words, but also to learn how to actively use them in writing. Here are some exercises aimed at converting a word from a passive vocabulary to an active one:

Method of notes. You need to take cards, leaflets or colored stickers. On one side, you write the word you want to remember, on the other - its meaning, synonyms, examples of use. Such cards can be sorted out at home, in transport, at work. Fast, convenient and efficient!

A notebook of synonyms. You can take a simple notebook or create an electronic document where you will write down words and rows of synonyms for them. For example, let's take the word result. A number of synonyms for it: consequence, consequence, trace, fruit, amount, result, conclusion, conclusion. It must be remembered that not only synonymous words, but also whole constructions can be added here: thus, so, from this we can conclude that we came to the conclusion that, etc. Also, in such a notebook, you can make notes about the nature of this or that word: outdated, high, vernacular, pejorative. If you use an electronic document, then words on one subject can be combined into separate blocks. In addition, such a notebook can also be supplemented with antonyms.

Thematic cards. They are convenient to use if you want to memorize and translate several words related to a common theme into your active dictionary at once. Write them down on one card and attach them in a prominent place. As a result, if you have remembered even one word from the card, the rest will inevitably come to your mind.

Association method. Try to accompany the memorization of words with associations: figurative, color, olfactory, tactile, gustatory, motor. The presence of such an association will help you remember the right word much faster. Moreover, you can rhyme an important word for you in some short rhyme or insert it into a stupid and meaningless but memorable statement.

Presentations and compositions. We are accustomed to the fact that presentations and essays are school exercises, and after graduating from school, we can never return to them. Meanwhile, they help to dramatically improve your writing skills and expand your active vocabulary. Presentations are suitable for a situation where you have read a text in which you come across many unfamiliar but useful words. Summarize this text in writing using these keywords and they will remain in your memory. As for essays, you do not need to write long treatises, a short story of five sentences is enough, in which you insert new words.

Memory calendar. This is the repetition graph of the words you want to translate into the active dictionary. It is based on research into how human memory works. Scientists have long found out that after a week a person forgets eighty percent of all new information received. However, this percentage can be significantly reduced by repeating the material at regular intervals. Then he gets into long-term active memory. For this, the so-called rational repetition mode was developed. For convenience, we present a table:

• First repetition. Immediately after finishing reading
• Second repetition. After half an hour
• Third repetition. In one day
• Fourth repetition. After two days
• Fifth repetition. After three days
• Sixth repetition. A week later
• Seventh repetition. In two weeks
• Eighth repetition. A month later
• Ninth repetition. After two months

To achieve the maximum effect, it is advisable not to deviate from the schedule. It's also best not to try to memorize a large array of words at the same time. It is better to break words into small thematic groups and create a calendar of repetitions for each group.

Crosswords, language games and puzzles. A great way to combine business with pleasure: practice the words you have learned and play! Here are some of the most common language games: scrabble (in the Russian version - erudite, bald), anagrams, antiphrases, burime, metagrams, hat, contact.

Test your knowledge

If you want to test your knowledge of the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. In each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you have chosen one of the options, the system automatically proceeds to the next question. The points you receive are influenced by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on passing. Please note that the questions are different each time, and the options are mixed.

have no obvious archaism1. obsolete

or novelty in the language. To them 2. outdated

Relate:

Common vocabulary,

characteristic of the colloquial and archaism of historicism

artistic style

Common 3.neologisms (new words)

Scientific and technical terminology

A number of words formal-business actually individual-

Book-poetic vocabulary

IN active the vocabulary includes everyday words, the meaning of which is clear to everyone who speaks Russian and which do not have obvious archaism or novelty (although the last clarification is relative): person, hand, speak, late, obviously, experiment, analysis, etc.

TO passive the stock includes those that are either outdated and outdated, or, due to their novelty, have not yet become sufficiently known and are not always understood by native speakers.

Composition active and passive the vocabulary of different persons depends on the specialty, age, education, general cultural level, place of residence, personal qualities and interests.

The words passivestock have some peculiarities of use: we often know their semantics approximately, in order to turn the words of a passive dictionary into words of an active dictionary, we often need a dictionary. Otherwise, we are in danger of the situation of the heroes Ilf and Petrov. The journalist Makovik creates such "cheerful lines": "Behind me the rafters are buzzing, the workers are scurrying here and there." Naturally, the buzzing of the rafters (the beams that form the basis of the roof) enrages the engineer: “Of course, the bolts can be called a transmission, but this is done by people who know nothing about construction. The rafters only hum when the construction site is about to fall apart. " It is clear that the word rafters for two characters it is not equally significant: for a journalist it is a passive word, for an engineer it is an active lexical unit.

The boundaries between active and passive vocabulary are characterized by mobility, because in the process of language development, they are constantly changing. The division of the vocabulary into active and passive vocabulary is justified only at a strictly defined time: each era has its own active and passive vocabulary.

2. Passive stock words.

Obsolete words (historicisms and archaisms).

Obsolete words - words of the modern Russian language that have fallen out of active use, but preserved in a passive vocabulary and are mostly understandable to native speakers. Words leave the language for various reasons. Depending on these reasons, obsolete words are divided into 2 categories: historicism and archaism.

Histories - these are words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the concepts and objects they designated. For instance, armor, armyak, horse tram, corvee, landowner etc. Historicism has no synonyms... In the dictionary are given with the label - obsolete., History ..

The transition of previously used words to historicism is observed in all periods of the history of language. It occurs especially intensively in the years of reorganization or breakdown of social relations.

There have been such critical periods in the history of Russia when changes in society entailed the transition to the passive stock of entire classes of words. In the XX century, such periods for Russia were:

1) events related to the change in the socio-political system in 1917 and the establishment of Soviet power;

2) the events of the 90s, which again changed the social and social system.

So, for example, in connection with the abolition in 1917. "Table of ranks" have become a liability for many words associated with the names of officials in the civil and military service (chancellor, chief prosecutor, lieutenant, centurion, esaul, etc.). In connection with the persecution of the church, which lasted more than 70 years, the names of clergymen (bishop, patriarch, abbot, psalmist, etc.), and words used to name objects of worship (altar, pulpit, lectern, etc.) were supplanted from active use. .).

In Russia, as in other countries, for centuries a system of measurements characteristic only of it has developed (verst, pood, pound, etc.). By the end of the XIX century. the International metric system was developed, and in 1875, in Paris, 17 states, including Russia, signed the Metric Convention. In 1889, the International Metric System was introduced in Russia, but the old Russian measures were also used. On September 11, 1918, the decree "On the introduction of the International metric decimal system of measures and weights" was adopted, which served as the last impetus for the introduction of a unified International system of measurements from January 1, 1927. Naturally, the names of the old measurement system after that gradually passed into passive language ...

Perestroika and the events that followed it also caused the archaization of a significant part of the Russian vocabulary (most of the words belong to the field of ideological propaganda): political information, anti-Soviet, pioneer, social science, scientific communism, etc. At the same time, some words began to return from the passive vocabulary to active (philanthropist, lyceum, gymnasium, patriarch, Christmas Eve, etc.).

Archaisms -these are outdated names of modern objects, phenomena, ousted by synonyms from the active vocabulary (a thing or concept remained, but their names are outdated, replaced by others): this - this, very - very, youth - teenager, youth, thinkable - reasonable. Archaisms have synonyms in modern Russian.

Types of archaisms.

Depending on whether the word is completely outdated, whether its individual elements are used, whether the phonetic design of the word changes, there are several types of archaisms:

- proper lexical

- semantic

- phonetic

- accentological

- derivational

- morphological

Actually lexical appear when the word becomes completely obsolete, for example: thief - a robber; harm - harm, death; zane - because, because; paradise - paradise, etc.

TO semantic refer to some ambiguous words that have one or more meanings out of date. For example, the word a guest obsolete is the meaning of "foreign trader, merchant", the word a shame - the meaning of "spectacle" (see A.S. Pushkin: "Everywhere ignorance is a destructive shame"), outrageous -in the meaning of "calling for indignation, for an uprising" (Pushkin "The Captain's Daughter": "A Bashkir with outrageous leaves was captured").

TO phonetic Archaisms include words in which, in the process of the historical development of the language, their sound form has changed (while maintaining the content): prospekt - avenue, English - English, Sveisk - Swedish, state - state, voxal - station, poet - poet, etc.

If the word had a different accent in the past, then they speak of accent, or accentological, archaisms: symbol`l, court`r, ghost`ak. (Lermontov: "Her mocking ghost" disturbs the spirit day and night. "

Word-building archaisms are those for which certain derivational elements are outdated: ferocity (modern ferocity), nervous (modern nervous), collapse (modern collapse).

Dostoevsky: "He stepped back, staggered and collapsed on the floor in a swoon."

Obsolete, some words do not leave a trace in the language, others remain:

1) either in the form of non-derivative stems in words ("rope" in the word rope; "swear" - "mockery" - in the word to scold; "beef" - "cattle" - in the word beef; "thin" - "skillful" - in word artist)

2) in the form of independent words as part of phraseological turns.

For example: zga - "road" \u003d not visible;

stake - "small piece of land" \u003d No stake, no yard

falcon - an ancient battering tool \u003d Goal like a falcon.

Morphological archaismsdiffer from modern words in morphological features. For example: rail - rail, piano (m.), Cocoa (m.) This also includes the verbs that have changed the ability to control nouns in case.

Wed: And I heeded the shudder of the sky (Pushkin)

Now: heed, heed someone's request.

Stylistic functions of obsolete vocabulary (historicisms and archaisms) are very diverse.

1. Both are used to reproduce the flavor of the era, to recreate some historical events.

2. Both types of obsolete words, especially archaisms, are often introduced by writers, poets, publicists into the text to give speech a special solemnity, elevation, pathos:

They go - their strength is gone obstacles,
All demolish, all overthrow in dust...
... sound chain mail and swords!
Be afraid about a host of aliens!
The sons of Russia moved;
Rose up and oldand young: fly to daring.
Their hearts are kindled with vengeance ...

(A.S. Pushkin)
3. Outdated vocabulary can sometimes be used as a means of humor, irony, satire. In this case, words are often used in a semantically alien environment.

Mayakovsky "The average man is curious, he would like to know everything about drinking"
Or compare, for example, the use of archaisms in the fables of Soviet poets:
Laurel leaf became arrogant,
A narrowed look, a haughty look,
Broadcasts, but does not speak ... (N. Mizin.)
Mendingwitnesses interrogation... (Mikhalk.)

1) Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language of the late 20th century of language changes; Ed. G.N. Skryalevsky. Ross. Academy of Sciences; Institute for Linguistic Research., From Folio-Press. S-Pb; 1998

The purpose of the dictionary: to present vocabulary is one of the complex and contradictory phenomena of the Russian language 1985-1997.

2) Somov V.P. Dictionary of rare and forgotten words - M .: Guman. from the Center VLADOS, 1996 - 764 p.

The purpose of the dictionary: remove the lexical difficulties that arise when reading the works of Russian classics from A. Sumarokov to A. Blok; expand and deepen the linguistic and cultural competence of the modern reader, lover of thoughtful reading.

3. New words (neologisms and occasionalisms )

In new words, or neologisms (Greek neos - new + logos - concept), are called, first of all, such words that appear in the language to designate new objects or concepts, for example: cybernetics, lavsan, letilan (antimicrobial fiber), interferon (medicine), oceanaut, manager and others. Especially many neologisms arise in the field of scientific and technical terminology.

The replenishment of words occurs continuously, new words, having become common, cease to be neologisms. Therefore, we can talk about neologisms:

in the 20s.: Soviet, drummer, frontline, load, subbotnik, Budenovite, People's Commissar, educational program, supply manager, trade representative ,;

in the 60s:KVN, cosmonaut, rocket launcher, landing on the moon;

in the 70s in connection with the ongoing scientific and technological revolution in our country, there have appeared: automated control systems, computers, videophone, supermarket;

90s:dealer, broker, marketing, manager, copier, etc.

The ways in which new words appear in the language are different.

You can talk about lexical and semantic neologisms.

Neologisms differ lexical and semantic... Lexical neologisms are words that are newly formed or borrowed. This category recently included, for example, such as extraterrestrial, spaceport, designer... Semantic neologisms are famous words that have acquired new meanings ( satellite - in the meaning of "artificial Earth satellite", bombardier - “a member of the sports team who plays excellent offense”). In a certain period, these naming conventions went through a stage of unusual, qualitatively new use, and then quite soon they were assimilated by speakers and writers.

Neologisms -these are the new words of the common language. They differ from individual copyright, which are usually called occasionalisms (by the author's neologisms).

There are significant differences between general linguistic neologisms and occasionalisms. Over time, neologisms cease to be perceived as new words and move into the category of ordinary words or leave the language.

Unlike neologisms, occasionalisms, even those who were educated a long time ago, do not become obsolete, retaining their uniqueness and freshness regardless of the time of their birth. Occasionalisms live only in the context in which they were born and retain their connection with the author who gave birth to them.

Some of them were included in the dictionary of the literary language, for example, the neologisms of M.V. Lomonosov - pendulum, pump, attraction, constellation, mine, drawing etc.; N.M. Karamzina - crush, industry, distraction, touching; F.M. Dostoevsky - efface etc. Others remain among the occasional formations that play a pictorial and expressive role primarily in the context of the author's context Compare, for example, V. Mayakovsky's neologisms: eupatorian, hammer, sickle, chamberlaine etc

A. Bely: rechar, krichak, lover.; V. Khlebnikov: pyuha, furry.

Dictionaries of neologisms do not exist, since neologisms very quickly enter the vocabulary and lose their novelty.

Exercises.

Task number 1. Find historicisms in this text.

In the Mongol army there was an order established by Genghis Khan. Each rider knew his place in the ten, and in the hundred, and in the thousand; thousands of warriors gathered in large detachments subordinate to the governors. ... At a distance, in the steppe, black Tatar yurts and red woolen tents scattered in a wide ring. It was the personal kuren of Genghis Khan, the camp of a thousand of the chosen bodyguards of the great kagan (V. Yan).

Task number 2.Find archaisms in this text.

1. Three virgins, wonderful beauty

In clothes that are light and lovely

The princess appeared, came

And they bowed to the ground.

Then with silent steps

One approached inaudibly;

Princess with air fingers