1) Immanuel Kant. The main stages of creativity --- p. 3-4

2) Ethics of I. Kant --- p. 4-5

3) Aesthetics I. Kant-p. 6-8

4) Morality. I. Kant's concept of morality --- p. 8-10

5) Conclusion - page 10

6) Composition by I. Kant --- p. 11

7) References --- page 11

IMMANUIL KANT. MAIN STAGES OF CREATIVITY.

Immanuel Kant (1724 -1804)

Immanuel Kant - (German Immanuel Kant [ɪˈmanuɛl kant] was born on April 22, 1724 in the city of Königsberg, Prussia. Immanuel Kant is a German philosopher, the founder of German classical philosophy, standing on the verge of the Enlightenment and Romanticism.

Born into a poor family of a saddle-maker. The boy was named after Saint Emmanuel, in translation this Hebrew name means "God with us." Before entering the university, he actively studied natural science. Under the care of the doctor of theology Franz Albert Schulz, who noticed a talent in Immanuel, Kant graduated from the prestigious Friedrichs-Collegium gymnasium, and then entered the University of Königsberg. He was first an assistant professor, then a professor, and, finally, a rector. He became famous for his works in the field of philosophy, as well as mathematics, natural science, law, and others. In 1781, Kant's main work "Critique of Pure Reason" was published.

The main idea of \u200b\u200bKant's critical philosophy is as follows: before using thinking to investigate any subject, one should first study the very "instrument" of cognition. Or, in the terminology of that time, to give a criticism of the ability of cognition. This was not accomplished by the previous philosophy, with which, first of all, the general crisis of sciences in the 18th century was connected, which Kant sought to comprehend and overcome.

The "Critique of Pure Reason" is of fundamental importance for science, since Kant addresses here new, previously unknown problems: the problem of a priori forms of cognition, the question of the source of activity and freedom of consciousness, the problem of the subject, which he poses differently from the metaphysics of the New time. In the doctrine of antinomies, Kant lays the foundations for the revival of the dialectical way of thinking. At the same time, the solution of these problems in Kant's philosophy cannot be recognized as satisfactory: opposing the subjective to the objective, thinking to being, Kant considers their unity to be just an ideal, the essence of which is incomprehensible to man. In an effort to overcome the contradiction between being and thinking, Kant approaches it differently than in the study of the theoretical ability of man. Namely: in the "Critique of Practical Reason", which forms the basis of his doctrine of morality, law and the state, the philosopher studies the will as a person's practical ability to act.

Stages of creativity of Immanuel Kant:

Kant went through two stages in his philosophical development: "pre-critical" and "critical" (These terms are defined by the works of the philosopher "Critique of Pure Reason", 1781; "Critique of Practical Reason", 1788; "Critique of the ability to judge", 1790)

Stage I (1747-1755 years) - Kant developed the problems that were posed by the previous philosophical thought.

developed a cosmogonic hypothesis of the origin of the solar system from a giant primordial gaseous nebula ("General Natural History and Theory of the Sky", 1755)

put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bdistributing animals according to the order of their possible origin;

put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bthe natural origin of human races;

studied the role of ebb and flow on our planet.

II stage (begins from 1770 or from the 1780s) - deals with issues of epistemology and especially the process of cognition, reflects on metaphysical, that is, general philosophical problems of being, cognition, man, morality, state and law, aesthetics.

The main philosophical work of Kant is "Critique of Pure Reason". The original problem for Kant is the question "How is pure knowledge possible?" First of all, it concerns the possibility pure mathematics and pure natural science ("pure" means "nonempirical", that is, one that does not mix with sensation). Kant formulated this question in terms of distinguishing between analytical and synthetic judgments - "How are synthetic judgments a priori possible?" Under "synthetic" judgments, Kant understood judgments with an increment of content, in comparison with the content of the concepts included in the judgment, which he distinguished from analytical judgments that reveal the meaning of the concepts themselves. The term "a priori" means "out of experience", as opposed to the term "a posteriori" - "from experience."

God is "an absolutely essential being." Sincerely believing in God means being kind and generally truly moral. In Kant's philosophy, the moral is combined with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe divine. The Church, proceeding from the ideal of faith, is a universal and necessary moral union of all people and represents the kingdom of God on earth. The striving for the dominance of the moral world order in earthly and sensual life is the highest good.

An imaginary morality is one that is based on the principles of utility, pleasantness, instinct, external authority, and various kinds of feelings.

The presence of a person's true moral feelings, moral feelings or virtues can be judged by how a person subordinates his private interests or all the well-being of life to a moral duty - the requirements of conscience.

Ethics of I. Kant: Kant's ethics is an original, terminologically developed theory that has deep roots in Western philosophical tradition. The central problem of the ethics of Kant, like Socrates, and also of the Stoics, is the problem of freedom.

Although the roots of his ethics lie even deeper - in the golden rule of morality.

Kant's main discovery is that in morality a person acts as his own (and at the same time universal) legislator.

The Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morality (1785) aimed to develop a pure moral philosophy based on a priori ideas - the idea of \u200b\u200bduty, moral law, and the idea of \u200b\u200bhuman dignity. The concept of duty, according to Kant, is not derived from experience, which fixes the corruption of human nature. "You don't have to be the enemy of virtue to doubt whether there is virtue in the world." Moral laws originate in pure reason, on this their universality and necessity is based. Pure reason is thought, purified of all empirical thinking, proceeding from logical ideas.

The ethical teaching of Kant is stated in "Criticism of Practical Reason" ... Kant's ethics is based on the principle "as if" God and freedom cannot be proved, but one must live as if they were. Practical reason is a conscience that guides our actions through maxims (situational motives) and imperatives (generally valid rules). Imperatives are of two kinds: categorical and hypothetical. The categorical imperative is duty. The hypothetical imperative requires our actions to be useful. There are two formulations of the categorical imperative:

"Always act so that the maxim (principle) of your behavior can become a universal law (do as you could wish everyone to do)";

"Treat humanity in your person (as well as in the person of anyone else) always only as a goal and never as a means."

"Critique of Practical Reason" (1788) is another attempt to prove that pure practical reason exists. Pure reason gives people a moral law, which has the form of an imperative, that is, pure reason forces a person to act. The autonomy of pure reason is freedom. The moral law, derived from pure reason, is unconditional, autonomous, universal and sacred.

The most important concept of Kant's ethics - the idea of \u200b\u200bhuman dignity. "Does not an honest man, in a great misfortune, which he could have avoided if he could neglect his duty, not support the consciousness that in his person he has preserved the dignity of mankind and honored him and that he has no reason to be ashamed of himself and fear the inner gaze self-tests? ... A person lives and does not want to become unworthy of life in his own eyes. This inner tranquility keeps a person from the danger of losing his own dignity "..." It is the result of respect not for life, but for something completely different, in comparison with which life with all its pleasures does not matter. "

Aesthetics of I. Kant:

In aesthetics, Kant distinguishes between two types of aesthetic ideas - beautiful and sublime ... The aesthetic is what is liked about the idea, regardless of the presence. Beauty is perfection associated with form. The sublime is perfection associated with infinity in power (dynamically sublime) or in space (mathematically sublime). An example of a dynamically sublime is a storm. An example of a mathematically sublime is mountains. A genius is a person capable of embodying aesthetic ideas.

Aesthetic views

"Criticism of the power of judgment"

The system of philosophy arose in Kant only after he discovered between

by nature, freedom is a kind of "third world" - the world of beauty. When he created

"Criticism of pure reason", he believed that aesthetic problems are impossible

comprehend from a generally valid position. The principles of beauty are empirical

hzakonov. The term "Aesthetics" Kant denoted the doctrine of sensuality, about

perfect space and time. However, in 1787 Kant reports

Reingold on the discovery of a new universal principle of spiritual activity, and

precisely “feelings of pleasure and displeasure”. Now the philosophical system

the thinker takes on clearer contours. He sees her in three parts

in accordance with the three abilities of the human psyche: cognitive,

evaluative (“feeling of pleasure”) and volitional (“ability of desire”). AT

"Critique of Pure Reason" and "Critique of Practical Reason" set forth the first and

the third constituent parts of the philosophical system are theoretical and practical.

The second, central, Kant still calls theology - the doctrine of

expediency. Then the term "theology" will give way to aesthetics -

the doctrine of beauty. The philosopher intended to finish the conceived work by

in the spring of 1788. But the work dragged on. The treatise was titled “Critique

ability of judgment ”. In the work "Critique of Pure Reason" the term

"The ability to judge" was designated one of the intuitive cognitive

abilities. If reason makes rules, then judgment

makes it possible to use these rules on a case-by-case basis.

Now Kant reflects on another kind of intuition, which he calls

"Reflective judgment." We are talking about finding this

particular of some formal general, but not about abstraction of general

signs is a matter of reason). Applying the reflective power of judgment,

a person thinks about the purpose of this particular. Teaching about goals

Teleology; therefore Kant calls this kind of reflective

ability of teleological judgment. Teleology is a principle for him

consideration of the subject, primarily a living organism, where all

expediently, that is, each part is necessarily related to the other.

Alongside he has the aesthetic ability of judgment, proceeding from the fact that

artistic experience gives the subject the same pleasure as

detection of expediency. In 1788, the philosopher discovered in the activity

human realm, where the results are also something organic.

This is art. Kant's teleology is not theology, but also not natural science: with

with its help, the philosopher does not find God in nature, but he does not discover laws

its managers, at the center of its consideration is still the person. Only

a person can set himself conscious goals, as a result of achieving

which the world of culture emerges. So Kant's teleology develops into a theory

culture. In the course of his work on the Critique of Judgment, Kant became increasingly

narrowed the scope of teleology, depriving it of its independent role, its function as

the central link of the system moved on to aesthetics. Teleology with a philosopher

captures the specifics of the subject and the boundaries of its cognition: objective

expediency is obvious, but its essence is incomprehensible. Teleology in this regard

is analogous to theoretical reason, which inevitably comes across

contradictions, trying to penetrate into the essence of things in themselves. And teleology

and the theoretical mind has a regulatory function. Constitutive (i.e.

constructive) role the mind plays in the field of human behavior,

morality. In the field of knowledge, the constitutive function is performed by

reason. In the sphere of "judgment", aesthetic assessment is constitutive,

akin to teleological and at the same time opposite to it. One approach

to wildlife and artistic creation based on the principle

expediency - one of the main ideas of the "Criticism of the ability to judge".

The philosopher's predecessors, the British Shaftesbury and Hutcheson, emphasized

the specificity of the aesthetic, its irreducibility neither to knowledge nor to morality. Kant

defends this thesis. But next to it he puts forward an antithesis: it is the aesthetic that is

the middle boat between truth and good, it is here that theory and

practice. Therefore, the aesthetic has two hypostases: on the one hand, it is turned

mainly to knowledge (this is beautiful), on the other - mainly to

morality (this is sublime). Kantian analysis of the main ethical categories

limited to consideration of these two categories, since philosopher

interested not in aesthetics as such, but in its mediating role, and categories

the beautiful and the sublime is enough for him to solve the set

tasks. One of the most important achievements of Kant is aesthetics in the fact that he discovered

the mediated nature of the perception of beauty. Before him, it was believed that

beauty is given to a person directly through the senses. It's enough to be

sensitive to beauty and have an aesthetic sense. Meanwhile, itself

“Aesthetic sense” is a complex intellectual ability. To

enjoy the beauty of an object, you must be able to appreciate its merits, and how

the more complex the subject, the more specific its aesthetic assessment. By juxtaposing

sublime with the beautiful, Kant notes that the latter is always associated with

clear form, the former can easily be found in the formless

subject. The pleasure of the sublime is indirect; beautiful

attracts, and the sublime both attracts and repels. Basis for

beautiful “we must seek outside of us, for the sublime - only in us and in

way of thinking ”. Thus, Kant divided the aesthetic into two parts -

beautiful and sublime, he showed the connection between each of these parts with

contiguous abilities of the psyche. In conclusion, he again talks about

aesthetic judgment as a whole. He concludes that aesthetic

the ability to judge you is generally associated with reason - the legislator

morality. As for the connection of aesthetic ability with reason -

the legislator of knowledge, then, rejecting it in its direct form, the philosopher

approves it indirectly. From his point of view, an aesthetic idea

"Revives" cognitive abilities. Kant finds the following formula

synthesis: “As applied to cognition, imagination is subordinated to reason and is limited

the need to correspond to concepts, and in an aesthetic sense,

on the contrary, it is free to give in addition to the indicated consistency with the concept ...

the sphere of human spiritual activity is outlined, enclosed in its

specificity. Truth, goodness and beauty are understood in their originality and brought together

together. The unity of truth, goodness and beauty finds additional justification

in the teaching of art. In Kant's aesthetics, turned to the side

general philosophical problems, art is assigned a relatively small, although

important enough place. All the above-mentioned features of aesthetic

manifest themselves here in full. Art, according to Kant, is not nature, not

science, not craft. Art can be mechanical or aesthetic.

The latter, in turn, is divided into pleasant and graceful. Pleasant arts

designed for enjoyment, entertainment and pastime. Graceful

arts promote the “culture of the ability of the soul”, they give a special

"Pleasure of reflection", bringing the sphere of aesthetic closer to the sphere of knowledge.

However, the Kantian dichotomy of art is not limited to this. Philosopher

one of the first in the history of aesthetics gives the classification of the fine arts.

The division is based on the way of expressing aesthetic ideas, that is

beauty. Various types of art - different kinds beauty. May be

the beauty of thought and the beauty of contemplation. In the second case, the artist's material

either contemplation or form serves. As a result, Kant discovers three types

fine arts - verbal, visual and the art of playing sensations. AT

in turn, the verbal arts are eloquence and poetry. Pictorial

arts include the art of sensual truth (plastic) and art

sensual visibility (painting). The philosopher includes sculpture and

architecture (including applied arts). The third part - the art of playing

sensation relies on hearing and sight. This is a play of sounds and a play of colors. Poetry

Kant considers the highest form of artistic creation. The value of poetry, in

the fact that it improves the intellectual and moral potential of a person;

playing with thoughts, she goes beyond the conceptual means of expression and

thereby trains the mind, it elevates, showing that a person is not only a part

nature, but the creator of the world of freedom.

Absolute morality and goodwill

In the introduction to the "Foundations to the Metaphysics of Morals" (1785), Kant formulated the basic axiom of his theoretical ethics: if a moral law is obligatory, then it certainly contains an absolute necessity. The moral law has in itself the instructions "according to which everything should happen." Each person should know the principles, laws of morality and the cases in which they are implemented. The absolute law is at the heart of the moral law, and that, in turn, is based on goodwill.

Good will is pure (unconditional will). Pure goodwill cannot exist outside of reason, since it is pure and does not contain anything empirical. And, in order to generate this will, you need a mind.

The moral law is coercion, the need to act contrary to empirical influences. This means that it takes the form of a compulsory command - an imperative.

Morality. I. Kant's concept of morality

Morality arose earlier than other forms of social consciousness, back in primitive society, and acted as a regulator of people's behavior in all spheres of social life: in everyday life, in work, in personal relationships. It had a universal meaning, extended to all members of the team and consolidated everything that was common, which constituted the value foundations of society, which formed the relationship between people. Morality supported the social foundations of life, forms of communication.

She acted as a set of norms and rules of behavior developed by society. The rules of morality were obligatory for everyone, they did not allow exceptions for anyone, because they reflected the essential conditions of people's life, their spiritual needs.

Morality reflects the relationship of a person to society, the relationship of a person to a person and the requirements of society to a person. It presents the rules of behavior for people that determine their responsibilities to each other and to society.

Moral consciousness permeates all spheres of human activity. It is possible to distinguish professional morality, everyday morality and family morality.

Immanuel Kant, believed that a person has innate ideas about good and evil, i.e. internal moral law. However, life experience does not support this thesis. How else to explain the fact that people of different nationalities and religions sometimes have very different moral rules? A child is born indifferent to any moral or ethical principles and acquires them in the process of education. Therefore, children need to be taught morality in the same way as we teach them everything else - science, music. And this teaching of morality requires constant attention and improvement.

Kant understands morality as a law that is absolutely necessary. This is only pure (good) will, which is given in the form of an unconditional duty, a categorical imperative. The moral space of individually responsible behavior coincides with the autonomy of the will - with the universal universally significant law that the rational will sets for itself.

There is only one moral law. All other rules acquire a moral quality only to the extent that they do not contradict it, beyond these limits they exist only by virtue of expediency. Accordingly, there is only one moral motive - duty as respect for the moral law. He not only differs from other motives (inclinations), but also reveals himself in an accentuated opposition to them. This means that there are no actions that would be performed only for the motive of duty, i.e. proper moral actions. If for Aristotle virtuous deeds are the only form of being of morality, which thereby acts as specific obligations to specific individuals in specific circumstances, then for Kant morality can never be embodied in the matter of living deeds and is a duty to humanity (the duty of humanity).

Kant's ethical theory generalizes the moral situation of a society in which relations between people have acquired a "material character" (K. Marx). In sociological theories, these societies are called industrial, capitalist, economic. In them, social relations appear as relations of such large masses of people that they inevitably turn out to be a) impersonal-anonymous and b) accentuated functional. Society is organized in such a way that its viability does not depend on the moral qualities and decisions of its constituent individuals, whose socially relevant behavior is guaranteed by institutional norms. Here ethics is supplemented primarily by law.

Both Aristotle and Kant proceed from the unity of man and society. The difference between them is that the first considers society as an expanded, externalized essence of man, while the second sees in man the pure embodiment of the lawful essence of society. Accordingly, Aristotelian ethics is the ethics of action, and Kantian ethics is the ethics of law. If we proceed from the fact that moral practice as the practice of intelligently (consciously) active beings consists of actions (actions) and rules (principles) according to which they are performed, then Aristotle and Kant consider it at two extreme points, tearing the whole into parts. We can say this: in the syllogism of an act, Aristotle focuses exclusively on a particular statement, as a result of which the conclusion turns out to be baseless (not justified). Kant is on a common premise, due to which the conclusion (act) itself is absent. In both cases, the syllogism of the deed turns out to be truncated, incomplete.

Kant divides will into a higher and a lower ability of desire. The lowest ability is made up of drives and inclinations aimed at sensual, earthly, final goals. Subordinate to the lower ability of desire, a person is attracted to personal happiness, to well-being. The highest ability is aimed at achieving universal goals. The object of attraction of the will determined by it is absolute, divine good. Only on this path do human actions have a moral image. The actions of a moral person striving for the absolute good are determined by practical reason. Although the laws according to which it operates are universal and obligatory, their source is still in the mind itself, therefore, the highest principle of reasonable will

is its freedom and autonomy. Kant reveals the content of the basic moral law by formatting his categorical imperative “Do so that the maxim of your will can always at the same time have the force of the principle of universal legislation”. The need to follow moral laws is a duty for a person.

The relationship between morality and law is determined by the fact that they both represent the rule of the due, dictated by the idea of \u200b\u200breason. The notion of duty is very important in Kant's practical philosophy. In relation to him, the concepts of legality and morality are defined. If the idea of \u200b\u200bduty in itself is a significant motive for a person to follow the law, then his actions will be moral. Kant calls the conformity of an act to the law, regardless of its motive, legality. The distinction between legality and morality is important for understanding his doctrine of law, since Kant defines the idea of \u200b\u200blaw by limiting it exclusively to the domain of the legal. According to Kant, law is formal, in the final analysis it should only ensure the preservation of universal freedom as the main requirement of moral consciousness, when the volitional aspirations of initially free and equal individuals collide with each other.

To define and differentiate the concepts of morality and law, Kant uses the concept of freedom. He understands freedom as a person's independence from the coercive arbitrariness of anyone else. Since freedom can be compatible with the freedom of every other person, corresponding to the universal moral law, it should be considered as the only original right inherent in every person due to his belonging to the human race “If freedom of will is assumed,” wrote the philosopher, “it is enough to dismember the concept of freedom so that morality follows from here, along with its principle. " Both law and morality, according to Kant, can and should be based only on freedom. Only in it does a person find his absolute self-awareness.

Based on the concept of freedom, Kant defines that, first, the concept of law refers only to external relations between people, because their actions as actions can have an impact on each other. Secondly, the concept of law does not mean the relation of arbitrariness to the desire of another person, but only the relation to his arbitrariness. Thirdly, in this mutual relation of arbitrariness, the content of this arbitrariness is not taken into account, i.e. the goal that everyone pursues in relation to the desired object.

Thus, according to Kant, law is a set of conditions under which the arbitrariness of one person is compatible with the arbitrariness of another person from the point of view of the universal law of freedom.

Kant distinguishes: 1) natural law, which has as its source self-evident a priori principles, i.e. preceding experience and independent of it, 2) positive law, the source of which is the will of the legislator; 3) justice - a claim not provided for by law and therefore not secured by compulsion.

Natural law, in turn, is divided into private law and public law. The first regulates the relationship of individuals as owners, the second - determines the relationship between people united in the state, as members of a single whole.

The most important obligations of law, which follow, according to Kant, from the analysis of the concept of personal freedom, are determined by the need to ensure the implementation of the following principles for civil society:

1) the freedom of each member as a person;

2) his equality with every other as a subject;

3) the independence of each member of society as a citizen.

CONCLUSION:

the whole city...

Kant became the most prominent figure in german philosophy... In the subcritical period, Kant dealt with problems of physics and mathematics. Kant was the first to raise the question of what science studies.

The formation of Kant's philosophical views took place gradually. Perhaps you can

say that Kant, for the first time in the history of German idealism, restored

dialectics. Marx and Engels praised the social-class foundations

philosophical system of Kant. Almost the entire concept of Kant is aimed at

man, his connection with nature, the study of human capabilities.

The works of Immnuel Kant:

Russian editions:

Immanuel Kant. Works in six volumes. Volume 1. - M., 1963, 543 p (Philosophical heritage, T. 4)

Immanuel Kant. Works in six volumes. Volume 2. - M., 1964, 510 p (Philosophical heritage, T. 5)

Immanuel Kant. Works in six volumes. Volume 3. - M., 1964, 799 p (Philosophical heritage, T. 6)

Immanuel Kant. Works in six volumes. Volume 4, part 1. - M., 1965, 544 p (Philosophical heritage, vol. 14)

Immanuel Kant. Works in six volumes. Volume 4, part 2. - M., 1965, 478 p (Philosophical heritage, vol. 15)

Immanuel Kant. Works in six volumes. Volume 5. - M., 1966, 564 p (Philosophical heritage, T. 16)

Immanuel Kant. Works in six volumes. Volume 6. - M., 1966, 743

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

I. Kant. Study of the clarity of the principles of natural theology and morality, M., 1985

Notes

(*) The poster prepared for the section of Philosophy, Sociology, Psychology and Law of the Department of Social Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences summarizes the research recent years, presented in more detail in the articles: "The subjunctive mood of morality"; "On the idea of \u200b\u200bthe absolute in morality" (Questions of Philosophy. 2002. No. 5; No. 3 for 2003); "Ethics and Morality in the Modern World"; "Law and deed (Aristotle, Kant, M.M. Bakhtin)"; "Goals and values: how is moral action possible?" (Ethical thought. Issues 1, 2 and 3. M .: IP RAS, 2000, 2001, 2002).

Moral philosophy Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) marks the transition from attempts to describe, explain morality, carried out mainly on an empirical foundation, to a theoretical analysis of morality as a special, specific phenomenon. Morality and ethics were of exceptional value for Kant, it is no coincidence that he devoted many of his works to ethical reflections: "Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morality" (1785), "Critique of Practical Reason" (1788), "Religion Within Only Reason" (1793), "Metaphysics morals "(1797). An introduction to the heritage of the German thinker, who has had and still has a fundamental impact on the development of philosophical and ethical reflection, presupposes a deep and unhurried study of his heritage. In this case, it is only possible to designate the main reference points of his ethical theory.

Kant's idea is to reveal the "purity" of morality, freeing it from all layers that "polluted" its unique essence. In carrying out this task, he is guided not by the nature of man and the circumstances of his life, but by "the concept of pure reason." Choosing a speculative way of constructing a moral theory, Kant repeatedly emphasized its practical significance: “If there is a spider that is really needed by a person, then this is the one I teach, namely: to take the place indicated for a person in the world in a proper way - and from which one can learn that what you need to be to be a man. "

Features of Kant's ethics: understanding of the paramount importance of morality in human life; an orientation towards identifying the specifics ("purity") of morality, analyzed from the standpoint of its autonomy, the study of morality using exclusively speculative, rationalistic means, without reliance on empiricism; taking morality for granted.

Preconditions of Kant's theory of morality: singling out the main issue of ethics in the sphere of global worldview issues (“what can I know”, “what should I do”, “what can I hope for”); postulates (about free will, about the existence of God, about the immortality of the soul) and their understanding by Kant (morality is not determined by religion, rather the opposite); the fundamental importance of moral autonomy.
The main ethical ideas of Kant:
The free will of a person manifests itself in the sphere of morality, here it is autonomous (determined by itself, and not from the outside).
To give this will a morally positive meaning, it is necessary to reconcile it with the a priori existing higher moral law - a categorical imperative, the most famous formulation of which is: “Act only in accordance with such a maxim, being guided by which, at the same time, you may wish it to become a universal law ".

Outside of the formulation of the categorical imperative, they fix the specifics and meaning of morality (the general validity of moral requirements, the intrinsic value of a person as a representative of humanity, the importance of interiorization).

The only "pure" motive for submission to a categorical imperative is duty, which makes it possible to distinguish between moral (proper, unselfish) and legal (any other motivation) behavior.

The fundamental significance of a rigorous orientation based on the understanding of morality as a duty, the absolute priority of duty in the sphere of motivation, the need to reasonably overcome sensual, selfish impulses, led to the transfer of happiness to the category of secondary values.

Criticism of naturalistic ethics, which allowed Kant to reveal its methodological flaws (the main one will later be called a "naturalistic mistake") and additionally emphasize the specifics of morality.

Explaining these ideas, one should first of all emphasize the meaning of Kant's position on the autonomy of morality: morality is self-sufficient, contains its own reason in itself and cannot be derived from anything. Kant not only sought to "cleanse" morality from everything that is empirical and "belonging to anthropology," but also emphasized its autonomy in relation to religion, moreover, religious faith was made dependent on morality. Autonomous morality (the source of which is not being, but absolutely due) opposes the real world, rises above it and is called upon to subjugate it. This is the basic antinomy of Kantian ethics, which has not only theoretical but also practical meaning.

In other formulations of the categorical imperative, Kant emphasized the moral intrinsic value of the individual (the prohibition to use everything as a means), and his ability to moral creativity. In fact, freedom, understood as the voluntariness of behavior, the personal choice of its principles, focused on their universal human significance, is identified by Kant with morality, which is different from legality, which is stimulated by coercion or personal interests.

The moral law exists for the individual as an obligation that determines the possibility of making the right choice, i.e. preference for duty to sensual inclinations, overcoming selfish impulses. Morality and ethics teach a person not how to become happy, but how to become worthy of happiness. Proceeding from this, Kant criticizes eudemonistic and generally naturalistic ethics, seeking to substantiate an extrapsychological understanding of morality. In his opinion, morality is not given by nature, on the contrary, it is imperative and prescribes for a person to overcome natural egoism in the name of proper ideals.

In the course of criticizing naturalistic, educational, religious ethics, Kant expressed many foamy ideas regarding the specifics of morality. For example, his principle of extreme rigorism (moral behavior is determined exclusively by duty) hides behind itself the problem of the purity of moral motivation associated with disinterestedness. Analyzing truly moral actions, carried out without any expectation of personal gain and compensation, Kant resorts to psychological explanations: "A pure idea of \u200b\u200bduty has a much stronger influence on the human heart than all other motives."

Kant saw the overcoming of the contradiction between the ideal and reality in the elevation, the spiritualization of existence, its submission to the principles of morality, expressing the main generic goal of the human community, but the analysis of the realities of life gave him no reason to hope that this was possible. Most people are obsessed with selfish inclinations and give little thought to the fate of virtue. Thus, the moral law must be implemented, but cannot be implemented. Kant connects a peculiar way out of this antinomy with the postulates of the immortality of the soul and the existence of God, which make it possible to contemplate the implementation of the moral law, although they do not determine the content of morality. As for history, it "should be (although it has not been up to now) the area of \u200b\u200bapplication of morality, but it is not its source" (OG Drobnitsky).

The pinnacle of philosophy in Kant is ethics, based on the understanding of man as the highest value. "In the entire created world, anything and for anything can be used only as a means; only man, and together with him every rational being is an end in itself." Ethics acts for him as a special part of philosophy, which regulates relations between people. But any regulation of such relationships is actually expressed in the system of moral norms, which are prescribed to do so and not in another way. And Kant poses the problem of how and by whom such norms can be justified in order to have the character of a general obligation for people.

Analyzing the existing systems of moral rules, Kant believes that they should not rely on religious dogmas, proceed from them as from those established by God. At the same time, he "did not admit the possibility of their socio-historical formation on the basis of people's life experience." Both could not be a sufficient basis for morality, since they do not proceed from the concept of truth, which does not depend either on God or on the accumulated experience. Kant is trying to develop the basis of morality like a priori schemes of reason, which are in the mind of a person, are predetermined for him and help, as we have shown above, to order sensations, that is, a moral law must exist inside a person, then it will be true and self-sufficient. "Two things always fill the soul with new and ever stronger surprise and awe, the more often we think about them - the starry sky above me and the moral law in me."

This internal moral law is designated by him as a categorical imperative. Accordingly, moral is what is associated with the fulfillment of duty. Duty to others is to do good, duty to yourself is to preserve your life and live it with dignity. "The maxim of benevolence (practical philanthropy) is the duty of all people to each other (it doesn't matter whether they are considered worthy of love or not) according to the ethical law of perfection: love your neighbor as yourself." Concretizing the concept of duty to oneself, Kant singles out such duties as self-preservation, the development of one's natural forces (spiritual, mental and physical), "increasing one's moral perfection." The beginning of all human wisdom, Kant calls moral self-knowledge, which forms "impartiality in judgments about oneself when compared with the law and sincerity in recognizing one's moral worth or unworthiness."

The inner moral feeling of people correlates with duty, without which a person would be no different from animals. And finally, another innate property of man is conscience, which acts as a kind of practical reason, with the help of which a person condemns or justifies the actions of other people and himself.

The most important concept of Kant's ethics is the idea of \u200b\u200bhuman dignity. "Does not an honest man, in a great misfortune, which he could have avoided if he could neglect his duty, not support the consciousness that in his person he has preserved the dignity of humanity and honored him and that he has no reason to be ashamed of himself and fear the inner gaze self-tests? ... A person lives and does not want to become unworthy of life in his own eyes. This inner calmness keeps a person from the danger of losing his own dignity "..." It is the result of respect not for life, but for something completely different, in comparison with which life with all its pleasures does not matter. "

Ethics is the most important part of philosophy, since its subject is man as a Homo phenomenon, that is, as a phenomenon.

Morality is one of the most important dimensions of the human world and being in general.

Kant's merit is in defining the specifics of morality (the kingdom of freedom is a different extension of the world compared to the kingdom of nature). Ethics that preceded Kant was strongly influenced by philosophical naturalism, which viewed man as a natural, naturally given being, having "natural" aspirations and needs.

Kant opposes naturalism, refusing to see nature as the basis of morality. In this, as in many other issues, Kant is close to Stoicism, which preached contempt for the bodily world and fostered respect for the strength of the spirit, for willpower and the desire to "be human" regardless of any circumstances or natural conditions.

In the sphere of life-meaning issues, a person thinks in a completely different way than in the sphere of objectively objective knowledge. He projects himself into the world, brings his meaning into it. A person should do his duty and maintain his dignity. His only reward will be the realization of his own virtue.

The initial principles of Kantian ethics are the postulates of free will, the immortality of the soul and the existence of God, that is, exactly those ideas that pure, theoretical reason could not resolve.

Pure reason is not able to solve these issues, since it falls into insoluble contradictions - antinomies associated with the fact that reason is able to prove both conflicting judgments (God exists - there is no God; man is free - man obeys, like the whole natural world, laws natural necessity, i.e. not free; the world has a beginning in time and space - the world is infinite). A way out of this impasse was found by Kant in the presence of a person's practical reason, or morality. In order to save morality (and man as a moral being), it is necessary to recognize free will. Therefore, the main and fundamental postulate of Kantian ethics is the postulate of free will. The answer to the question - "How is freedom possible?" is the answer to the question - "How is morality possible?" The condition for the existence of morality is free will, so we must accept it as a postulate.

However, man is a part of nature and acts in the natural world, obeying the laws of natural necessity, therefore, his every action is predictable with the accuracy of a natural phenomenon. But, on the other hand, without at all violating this causal chain of events in his actions, he is capable of self-determination, thus acting not as a natural being, but as a thing-in-itself, a noumenon, an intelligible and transcendent (outside natural necessity) essence ... As a rational being, a person is not just conditioned from the outside, but also from within. Thus, man is a being of two worlds; the world of natural necessity (and lack of freedom) and the world of culture and morality (based on a person's ability to self-determination and freedom).

Kant's main discovery is that in morality a person acts as a legislator for himself, while his decision will be moral if he speaks on behalf of all mankind.

Actually moral is such behavior that is not conditioned by any reasons that can influence it. Free will is understood by Kant as independence from conditions or unconditionality. If a person fulfills someone else's will, he is not free. If he acts out of some interest (selfish, ambitious) or from the motives of sensuality, he is not free. If he acts for some motive (internal or external), he is not free. Such actions fit the formula of a hypothetical imperative that looks like: "if you want to achieve such and such a goal, do this."

The categorical imperative, which reflects the essence of morality, has a completely different character.

The categorical imperative does not say anything about the end or the means, but only about the form of an act, by which one can judge its morality. This is a pure obligation, based on the idea of \u200b\u200bthe free will of each person as a reasonable and responsible person.

An act is moral if it is itself a goal and can become a model for universal legislation.

Kant's highest moral law has several formulations.

• 1. "Act according to such a maxim, guided by which you can at the same time wish that it became a universal law." Since the moral law contains nothing but the general expediency of actions, the categorical imperative cannot be anything other than a requirement for the human will to be guided by this law. ethics philosophy moral soul
• 2. "Act so that you always treat humanity both in your own person and in the person of everyone else the same way as you treat the goal and never treat it only as a means", or so that humanity in our person is always holy and acted as an end in itself. This imperative is the supreme principle of the doctrine of virtue. It is categorical for the reason that it should be performed not for some other purpose, but for its own sake, and because it does not need any proof. It is based on the fact that "rational nature exists as a goal in itself." Morality in general consists in subordinating one's actions to the principle of reason.
• 3. "Do so that the maxim of your will can at the same time have the force of the principle of universal legislation." Man, as a moral being, must act as if he were always the legislative member in the universal kingdom of goals. The unity of the human race, its ability to perfection are enclosed in the intelligible (inner, but intelligible) or transcendental (outside the empirical world) kingdom of goals. Morality of a person is, in fact, his rise from the realm of the everyday world to the realm of the intelligible.

This requirement is categorical, not hypothetical, because it speaks of a pure goal that is being pursued for its own sake and because it does not require any proof.

The moral law, according to Kant, is embedded in the soul and conscience of every person.

How he got there is the greatest mystery, the same mystery as the starry sky overhead.

But he is in the soul of every person, which testifies in favor of the divine origin of man, in favor of the immortality of his soul. Thus, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe immortality of the soul and the idea of \u200b\u200bGod are derived from the postulate of free will.

As a sensible being, man belongs to the world of phenomena (phenomena). As a rational, moral being, he belongs to the intelligible world of things in themselves (noumena).

Thus, Kant believes that freedom and necessity exist in different relationships, in different worlds, they do not intersect anywhere.

In his work "Foundations of Metaphysics of Morality" Kant concretizes the concept of duty, highlighting the following types:

• 1. A person's duty to higher beings (if they are).
• 2. Man's duty to man.
• 3. Man's duty to lower beings (for example, animals).

In more detail he dwells on the second type of duty (actually moral), dividing it into two parts - a person's duty to himself and a duty to other people.

A person's debt to himself is divided into two parts - concern for preserving his physical body (taking care of your own health) and taking care of yourself as a spiritual being (the obligation to improve in a cultural and moral sense).

A person's duty to others is the duty of respect, benevolence and love. To promote the happiness of others is a moral duty of a person, much more noble and worthy than the goal of striving for his own happiness.

Kant's moral philosophy considered empiricism to be the main object of its criticism. Moral and ethical issues have caused controversy and heated debate among philosophers, scientists and poets since very ancient times. Starting from Democritus, Socrates, Aristotle and up to the present day, this dispute is not completed and continues. Kant's moral philosophy considered empiricism the main object of its criticism. Immanuel Kant was the greatest philosopher of his time. The philosopher wrote this about empiricism: "... empiricism is much more dangerous than any exaltation, which can never be a positive state of many people." Exaltation meant rationalism. Ethics is the study of the root causes of morality. Ethics is the doctrine of morality and morality.

In his moral philosophy, Kant combined the most valuable elements of the two traditional ethical teachings. In his works, he showed that the principle of happiness and the principle of morality are not opposed, that pure practical reason does not want people to give up their claims to happiness.

It is precisely this understanding of the relationship between the principle of happiness and the principle of morality by Kant that is also very valuable and important for understanding the moral programs laid down by the Creator in a person.

First, happiness (for example, health, wealth) may contain the means to fulfill one's duty, and secondly, its absence (for example, poverty) is fraught with the temptation to violate one's duty. It must be assumed that by violating his duty, a person loses the meaning of happiness and with it his sacred moral values. That is why Kant not only did not exclude the material and spiritual sensual needs of a person, but also raised aspirations and inclinations to the height of duty.

Reflecting on human happiness and the reason that guides a person when making a choice, Kant notes that in fact we find that the more an enlightened mind indulges in the thought of enjoying life and happiness, the further a person is from true satisfaction.

Kant sees the overcoming of the contradiction between the ideal and reality in the elevation, the spiritualization of existence, its subordination to the principles of morality, expressing the main generic goal of the human community, but the analysis of the realities of life does not give him reason to hope that this is possible. Most people are obsessed with selfish inclinations and give little thought to the fate of virtue. Thus, the moral law must be implemented, but cannot be implemented. Kant finds a way out of this antinomy in the postulates of free will, the immortality of the soul, the existence of God, which testifies to his powerlessness in finding the source of moral obligation, bridging the gap between what is and what is, freedom and necessity.

30. Hegel's absolute idealism: philosophical system and method.

Hegel is an eminently rationalist.

He used the principle of trinity in his philosophical system:

2) Philosophy of nature (mechanics, physics, organics)

3) Philosophy of the soul (objective, subjective and absolute spirit)

Major works: "Science of Logic", "Phenomenology of Spirit"

It proceeds from the fact that there was already logic before it, and proposes the so-called speculative logic of reason. "Logic is the science of God as he was before the creation of the spirit", "Logic is the science of the eternal in a changing world."

Hegel sees logic in two forms:

Objective (logic of the course of events, logic of things)

Subjective (logic of thinking)

The logic of thinking is identical to the logic of being, therefore, thinking itself is identical to being (this is what Schelling wrote about: that it is necessary to consider the world as a whole) everything that is real is rational and everything that is rational is real. Reason is not a specific feature of a person, but the fundamental principle of the world. This is the world mind, this is the unity of the objective and the subjective in their identity and difference.

The absolute idea is the intellectual power of a person, which is embodied in forms, the absolute idea is included in the triad.

1) Logic (absolute idea (in itself)

2) philosophy of nature (nature in another being)

3) philosophy of spirit (absolute spirit, absolute idea, “in and for himself”)

The absolute idea identifies nature. Nature is otherness absolute idea... Alienation occurs not in time but in space. The absolute idea returns to itself through the absolute spirit. Everything that happens in the world is the result of the self-unfolding of the absolute idea, the internal content taking place in it. Man is a moment in the development of the world mind.

The philosophy of spirit is divided into Objective spirit, subjective spirit and absolute spirit.

Subjective - anthropology, phenomenology, and psychology.

Objective - the right of state morality

Absolute - art, religion, philosophy (forms of knowledge of the world)

Art is sensual images.

Religion is a transition from sensual to figurative.

Philosophy is pure thinking “a purified synthesis of art and religion”. The highest stage of development of human thought.

The greatness of Hegel lies in the fact that he presented the whole world as a single, endlessly developing process.

Method D is the consistency and way of self-knowledge of the spirit. Hegel formulated the laws and categories of dialectics. Quality and quantity categories. Quality is something without which an object cannot exist. The quantity is indifferent to the object, but up to a certain limit. Quantity plus quality is the measure. Three laws of dialectics (the essence of the history of development). 1. The law of the transition of quantitative relations into qualitative ones (when the quantitative relations change after a certain stage, the quality changes due to the non-destruction of the measure). 2. The law of direction of development (negation of negation). Naked negation is something that comes after a given object, completely destroying it. Dialectical negation: something of the first object is preserved - the reproduction of this object, but in a different quality. Water is ice. To grind the grain is naked negation; to plant the grain is dialectical negation. Development takes place in a spiral. 3. The law of unity and struggle of opposites. The contradiction between form and content, possibility and reality. The reason for development is the unity and struggle of opposites. It is inherent in the spirit. Identity initially, but potentially different. Identity - difference - opposite. Opposites interact, that is, they fight. The struggle leads to three outcomes: mutual destruction, illumination by one of the parties, or compromise. Conclusions: 1) the contradictions between his system and method are fixed: the system is finite, the method is infinite. 2) Developed dialectics to the level of laws 3) gave reasons: to justify everything that exists since it is reasonable and really striving for revolutionary transformations, since any synthesis is a thesis for subsequent antithesis.

philosophy kant ethical

Ethics is a scientific discipline, the subject of which is morality and ethics. Some of the most important philosophical works on ethical issues are the works of I. Kant, the founder of German classical philosophy that existed in Western Europe in the late 18th - mid-19th centuries.

I. Kant posed a number of significant problems related to the definition of the concept of morality, his ethical concept contains the development of questions about the existence of God, soul, obligation and freedom, questions of theoretical and practical reason.

The main works of the scientist: "Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morality" (1785), "Critique of Practical Reason" (1788), "Metaphysics of Morals" (1797), "On the Originally Evil in Human Nature" (1792), "About the Proverb" may be true in theory, but not suitable for practice "(1793)," Religion within only the mind "(1793). Philosophy: Textbook for universities. / Under the editorship of VN Lavrinenko, Ratnikov. - M .: Culture and sport, UNITY, 1998 .-- p. 15

I. Kant's practical philosophy influenced subsequent generations of philosophers (A. and W. Humboldt, A. Schopenhauer, F. Schelling, F. Gelderlin, etc.).

The aim of the work is to consider the basic ethical ideas of the philosophy of I. Kant.

The principles of building the ethics of I. Kant

It is customary to subdivide Kant's work into two stages: critical and subcritical. At the first stage, the philosopher dealt mainly with natural scientific problems. In the philosophical works of this period, Kant substantiated the idea of \u200b\u200bthe perfection of the world, established the principle of sufficient reason, distinguished between the basis of the existence of an object and the basis of its cognition, which became the basis for the future theory of dualism of the world of real things and the world of knowledge about them. Also at this stage the development of the idea of \u200b\u200bfreedom began as a conscious determination of people's actions, as an introduction to the will of the motives of reason. In the future, developing this idea, the philosopher will formulate the postulate about the impossibility of man to rely on his drives, determined by nature, without remaining human.

At the second stage, the scientist dealt with the issues of ethics, aesthetics and the doctrine of the expediency of nature, and also paid attention to the problem of the relationship between philosophy and experimental knowledge.

In aesthetics, Kant identified two types of aesthetic ideas - the beautiful and the sublime. He attributed to the aesthetic that attractive in the idea that exists regardless of the presence. By the beautiful, he understood the perfection associated with form. The sublime is perfection associated with infinity in power (dynamically sublime) or in space (mathematically sublime). An example of a dynamically sublime is a storm. An example of a mathematically sublime is mountains. A genius is a person capable of embodying aesthetic ideas.

The scientist comes to the conclusion that true philosophy should include a method that is based on universal laws. Also, Kant during this period put forward the position that truth and good, knowledge and moral feeling should not be confused, he took up the problem of the unity of opposites. Kant pointed out that what is true for logic may not be true for reality. The logical opposite consists in the fact that about one and the same thing any statement is either affirmed or denied, one cancels the other, as a result of which nothing is obtained.

By the end of the 1860s, the empirical position, up to skepticism, was replaced by a kind of dualism in views. Kant solved the problem of the connection of the senses with the intellect, separating them in different directions. Sensuality, from the point of view of Kant, refers to phenomena, phenomena, and an intelligible object - to noumena. The world considered by Kant as a phenomenon exists in time and space. At the same time, time and space are not existing in themselves, they are subjective conditions inherent in the human mind for the coordination of sensually perceived objects among themselves. In the noumenal world, i.e. in the sphere of objects in themselves, there is no time and space. Kant intended to create a special discipline - "general phenomenology", which would have to limit the limits of sensory knowledge, so as not to transfer it to objects of "pure reason".

In philosophy, Kant posed three main questions: “What can I know? What should I do? What dare I hope? " According to his views, he answers the first question, morality to the second, and religion to the third. The challenge for philosophical ethics, therefore, is to find an answer to the second question.

In his main work, Critique of Pure Reason, Kant sets out his own ethical concept.

Kant points to the priority of practical reason over theoretical and activity over consciousness. He ranks ethics, the theory of state and law, the philosophy of history, the philosophy of religion and anthropology as practical philosophy. For Kant, practical reason means legislation, the creation of principles of moral behavior. Philosophy: Textbook for universities. / Ed. Lavrinenko V.N., Ratnikova. - M .: Culture and sport, UNITI, 1998. - p. The scientist sees the differences between the two types of reason in their support: practical reason relies on knowledge, while theoretical reason does not have such support. For Kant, it is more important to rely on knowledge, scientific reason and scientific ethics.

In general, Kant adheres to the priority of morality in human behavior.

Kant based his ethical teaching on the principles of human ontological duality, the principle of rationalism, reliance on obligation, orientation towards autonomy. By autonomy, the scientist means the independence of moral positions from extramoral arguments and grounds.

Kant considers man to be an ontologically dual creation, which refers to two different worlds - phenomena and things in themselves. As a result, Kant saw man split in relation to himself and the sphere of his behavior. He believed that there can be no single ethics for two different worlds.

The rationalism of Kant's ethics assumes the priority of reason in assessing good and evil, rather than relying on desires and impressions. In his opinion, if ethics is based on feelings, it will not have purity of morals.

This traces the normativity of Kant's ethics, its global orientation towards what is due. Proceeding from the position of the duality of human nature, Kant argues that the scheme of any real moral behavior of any really existing moral behavior is a priori flawed.

Kant's ethics is characterized by autonomy, focus on some ideal independent of anything. Ethics according to Kant does not take into account any aspects: neither calculation, nor selfishness, nor benefit, nor harm.

Kant's doctrine of man is distinguished by a pessimistic character. The center of this theory is the thesis of "inherently evil" inherent in human nature. Kant believed that people, by their empirical nature, are more evil than kind, due to the fact that animal selfishness inclines them to evil-heartedness and deceit, despite their attraction to sociability and the inclinations of humanity and personal dignity.

Kant describes the concept of a moral law, the basis of which is "not in the nature of man or in those circumstances in the world in which he is placed, but a priori exclusively in terms of pure reason." Kant I. Foundations of the metaphysics of morality. Critique of practical reason / vol. 4 - M .: 1965. - p. 223 According to Kant, moral philosophy is wholly derived from its pure foundation. It does not borrow anything from anthropology, but gives a priori laws to man as a rational being. In this regard, the moral law can only be derived in "pure philosophy." Kant believed that philosophy, combining a priori and empirical principles, cannot be philosophy, and even less so be moral. Therefore, the basis of ethics is the "metaphysics of morality", which is intended to study the ideas and principles of a possible pure will, and not the actions and conditions of human will.

Kant introduces various kinds of ethical imperatives. The philosopher understands an imperative as a certain form of command. Imperatives always presuppose the imperfection of the will of a rational being and use such a will that, in terms of its content, is not necessarily determined by this imperative. The imperatives prescribe that doing this is good, but they say this about "a will that does not always do something because it is given the idea that it is good to do it." Kant I. Foundations of the metaphysics of morality. Critique of practical reason / vol. 4 - M .: 1965. - p. 251

According to Kant, there are two main variants of imperatives: hypothetical and categorical. A hypothetical imperative exists when the act it prescribes is determined to be good solely as a means to something else. A categorical imperative is present if an act is presented as good in itself or as necessary for the will, and the will itself is consistent with reason.

• - extremely formal nature of ethics;
• - refusal to build ethics as a doctrine of the conditions and means that lead a person to happiness;
• - opposition of moral duty to attraction and, above all, sensual inclination.

According to Kant, the moral law is distinguished by its utmost formality. When it is considered as containing a definition of the content of a moral deed, then, according to Kant, there is an incompatibility with the foundations of the moral law itself (unconditional universality, complete independence from empirical circumstances and conditions, autonomy as independence from any interest).

Thus, moral precepts are inapplicable to a moral law, since material, empirical conditions cannot be attributed to it. Everything material is always based on subjective conditions, which cannot give rational beings any other general validity, except for the conditioned one. Consequently, the necessity expressed in the law of morality should not be a natural necessity, but can be "only in the formal conditions of the possibility of a law in general." Kant I. Foundations of the metaphysics of morality. Critique of practical reason / vol. 4 - M .: 1965. - p. 351

The formalism of Kant's ethics, however, contains idealism and an orientation against the empirical foundation of morality. In his opinion, everything empirical is not applicable to the formal principle of morality. The next characteristic of Kant's doctrine is its anti-eudemonism, denial of the possibility of basing ethics on the principle of happiness.

According to Kant, the need for happiness refers exclusively to "matter", the ability of desire, which in turn is associated with the subjective feeling of pleasure or displeasure that is at the heart of desire itself. Thus, it is impossible to take into account the goal of achieving happiness as a law, because the "material" basis is cognized by the subject only empirically. What each sees as his happiness depends on a special feeling of pleasure or displeasure, and even in the same subject - on the difference in needs in accordance with changes in this feeling. Consequently, the practical principle of the pursuit of happiness is random, different for different subjects and, therefore, can never be law. Kant I. Foundations of the metaphysics of morality. Critique of practical reason / vol. 4 - M .: 1965. - p. 315