There are four main classes of complex bioorganic substances: proteins, fats, nucleic acids and carbohydrates. Polysaccharides belong to the latter group. Despite the "sweet" name, most of them are not culinary functions at all.

What is a polysaccharide?

Substances of the group are also called glycans. A polysaccharide is a complex polymer molecule. It is made up of individual monomers - monosaccharide residues, which are linked by a glycosidic bond. Simply put, a polysaccharide is a molecule built from combined residues of more. The number of monomers in a polysaccharide can vary from several tens to a hundred or more. The structure of polysaccharides can be both linear and branched.

Physical properties

Most polysaccharides are insoluble or poorly soluble in water. Most often they are colorless or yellowish. Most polysaccharides are odorless and tasteless, but sometimes it can be sweetish.

Basic chemical properties

Among the special chemical properties of polysaccharides are hydrolysis and the formation of derivatives.

• Hydrolysis is a process that occurs when a carbohydrate interacts with water using enzymes or catalysts such as acids. During this reaction, the polysaccharide breaks down into monosaccharides. Thus, we can say that hydrolysis is the reverse process of polymerization.

Starch glycolysis can be expressed by the following equation:

• (C 6 H 10 O 5) n + n H 2 O \u003d n C 6 H 12 O 6

So, when starch reacts with water under the action of catalysts, we get glucose. The number of its molecules will be equal to the number of monomers that form a starch molecule.

• Derivatives can be formed by reactions of polysaccharides with acids. In this case, carbohydrates add acid residues to themselves, as a result of which sulfates, acetates, phosphates, etc. are formed. In addition, the addition of methanol residues can occur, which leads to the formation

Biological role

Polysaccharides in the cell and the body can perform the following functions:

• protective;
• structural;
• storing;
• energy.

The protective function lies primarily in the fact that the cell walls of living organisms are composed of polysaccharides. Thus, plants are composed of cellulose, fungi - from chitin, bacteria - from murein.

In addition, the protective function of polysaccharides in the human body is expressed in the fact that the glands secrete secretions enriched with these carbohydrates, which protect the walls of organs such as the stomach, intestines, esophagus, bronchi, etc. from mechanical damage and the penetration of pathogenic bacteria.

The structural function of polysaccharides in the cell is that they are part of the plasma membrane. They are also components of organoid membranes.

The next function is that the main reserve substances of organisms are precisely polysaccharides. For animals and fungi, it is glycogen. In plants, starch is a spare polysaccharide.

The latter function is expressed in the fact that the polysaccharide is an important source of energy for the cell. The cell can get it from such a carbohydrate by splitting it into monosaccharides and further oxidation to carbon dioxide and water. On average, when one gram of polysaccharides is broken down, the cell receives 17.6 kJ of energy.

The use of polysaccharides

These substances are widely used in industry and medicine. Most of them are obtained in laboratories by polymerizing simple carbohydrates.

The most widely used polysaccharides are starch, cellulose, dextrin, agar-agar.

The use of polysaccharides in industry

Name of substance	Using	Source
Starch	Finds application in the food industry. Also serves as a raw material for alcohol. It is used for the manufacture of glue, plastics. Also used in the textile industry	Obtained from potato tubers, as well as from seeds of corn, rice chaff, wheat and other plants rich in starch
Cellulose	It is used in the pulp and paper and textile industries: it is used to make cardboard, paper, and viscose. Cellulose derivatives (nitro, methyl, cellulose acetate, etc.) are widely used in the chemical industry. They also produce synthetic fibers and fabrics, artificial leather, paints, varnishes, plastics, explosives and much more.	This substance is obtained from wood, mainly conifers. It is also possible to obtain cellulose from hemp and cotton
Dextrin	It is a food additive E1400. Also used in the manufacture of adhesives	Obtained from starch by heat treatment
Agar agar	This substance and it as stabilizers in the manufacture of food (for example, ice cream and marmalade), varnishes, paints	Extracted from brown algae, as it is one of the components of their cell membrane

Now you know what polysaccharides are, what they are used for, what is their role in the body, what physical and chemical properties they have.

One of the types of organic compounds necessary for the full functioning of the human body are carbohydrates.

They are divided into several types according to their structure - monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. You need to figure out what they are for and what are their chemical and physical properties.

Carbohydrates are compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Most often they are of natural origin, although some are produced industrially. Their role in the life of living organisms is enormous.

Their main functions are called the following:

1. Energy... These compounds are the main source of energy. Most of the organs can function fully due to the energy obtained during the oxidation of glucose.
2. Structural... Carbohydrates are essential for the formation of almost all cells in the body. Fiber plays the role of a supporting material, and complex carbohydrates are found in bones and cartilage tissue. One of the components of cell membranes is hyaluronic acid. Also, carbohydrate compounds are required in the process of enzyme production.
3. Protective... During the functioning of the body, the work of the glands, which secrete secretory fluids, is necessary to protect the internal organs from pathogenic effects. A significant portion of these fluids are carbohydrates.
4. Regulatory... This function is manifested in the effect on the human body of glucose (maintains homeostasis, controls osmotic pressure) and fiber (affects gastrointestinal peristalsis).
5. Special functions... They are characteristic of certain types of carbohydrates. These special functions include: participation in the transmission of nerve impulses, the formation different groups blood, etc.

Based on the fact that the functions of carbohydrates are quite diverse, it can be assumed that these compounds should differ in their structure and characteristics.

This is true, and their main classification includes such varieties as:

1. ... They are considered to be the simplest. Other types of carbohydrates enter into the hydrolysis process and break down into smaller components. Monosaccharides do not have this ability, they are the final product.
2. Disaccharides... In some classifications, they are referred to as oligosaccharides. They contain two monosaccharide molecules. It is on them that the disaccharide is divided during hydrolysis.
3. Oligosaccharides... This compound contains from 2 to 10 molecules of monosaccharides.
4. Polysaccharides... These compounds are the largest variety. They contain more than 10 molecules of monosaccharides.

Each type of carbohydrate has its own characteristics. We need to consider them in order to understand how each of them affects the human body and what its benefits are.

These compounds are the simplest form of carbohydrates. They contain one molecule, therefore, during hydrolysis, they do not divide into small blocks. When monosaccharides are combined, disaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides are formed.

They are distinguished by their firm state of aggregation and sweet taste. They have the ability to dissolve in water. They can also dissolve in alcohols (the reaction is weaker than with water). Monosaccharides hardly react to mixing with esters.

Natural monosaccharides are most often mentioned. Some of them are consumed by people along with food. These include glucose, fructose and galactose.

• chocolate;
• fruit;
• some types of wine;
• syrups, etc.

The main function of this type of carbohydrates is energy. This is not to say that the body cannot do without them, but they have properties that are important for the full functioning of the body, for example, participation in metabolic processes.

The body absorbs monosaccharides faster than anything that happens in the digestive tract. The digestion process of complex carbohydrates, unlike simple compounds, is not so simple. First, complex compounds must be divided into monosaccharides, only after that they are absorbed.

This is one of the most common types of monosaccharides. It is a white crystalline substance that forms naturally - during photosynthesis or hydrolysis. The compound formula is C6H12O6. The substance is highly soluble in water and has a sweet taste.

Glucose provides energy to muscle and brain cells. When it enters the body, the substance is absorbed, enters the bloodstream and spreads throughout the body. There, it is oxidized with the release of energy. It is the main source of energy for the brain.

With a lack of glucose in the body, hypoglycemia develops, which primarily affects the functioning of the brain structures. However, its excessive content in the blood is also dangerous, as it leads to the development of diabetes mellitus. Also, when large amounts of glucose are consumed, body weight begins to increase.

Fructose

It is one of the monosaccharides and is very similar to glucose. Differs in slower rates of assimilation. This is because absorption requires fructose to be converted to glucose first.

Therefore, this compound is considered harmless for diabetics, since its consumption does not lead to a sharp change in the amount of sugar in the blood. Nevertheless, with such a diagnosis, caution is still necessary.

Fructose has the ability to quickly convert to fatty acids, which causes obesity. This compound also decreases insulin sensitivity, which causes type 2 diabetes.

This substance can be obtained from berries and fruits, and also from honey. Usually it is there in combination with glucose. The compound also has a white color. The taste is sweet, and this feature is more intense than in the case of glucose.

Other connections

There are other monosaccharide compounds as well. They can be natural or semi-artificial.

Galactose is natural. It is also found in food, but it is not found in its pure form. Galactose is the result of lactose hydrolysis. Milk is called its main source.

Other naturally occurring monosaccharides are ribose, deoxyribose and mannose.

There are also varieties of such carbohydrates, for which industrial technologies are used.

These substances are also found in food and enter the human body:

• rhamnose;
• erythrulose;
• ribulose;
• D-xylose;
• L-allose;
• D-sorbose, etc.

Each of these compounds has its own characteristics and functions.

Disaccharides and their uses

The next type of carbohydrate compounds are disaccharides. They are considered complex substances. As a result of hydrolysis, two molecules of monosaccharides are formed from them.

This type of carbohydrate has the following characteristics:

• hardness;
• solubility in water;
• poor solubility in concentrated alcohols;
• sweet taste;
• color - from white to brown.

The main chemical properties of disaccharides are hydrolysis reactions (breakdown of glycosidic bonds and the formation of monosaccharides) and condensation (polysaccharides are formed).

There are 2 types of such connections:

1. Restoring... Their feature is the presence of a free hemiacetal hydroxyl group. Due to it, such substances have reducing properties. This group of carbohydrates includes cellobiose, maltose and lactose.
2. Non-restoring... These compounds cannot be reduced because they lack a hemiacetal hydroxyl group. The most famous substances of this type are sucrose and trehalose.

These compounds are widespread in nature. They can be found both in free form and in other compounds. Disaccharides are a source of energy, since glucose is formed from them during hydrolysis.

Lactose is very important for babies as it is the main component of baby food. Another function of this type of carbohydrates is structural, since they are part of the cellulose, which is needed to form plant cells.

Characteristics and features of polysaccharides

Another type of carbohydrate is polysaccharides. This is the most difficult type of connection. They consist of a large number of monosaccharides (their main component is glucose). In the gastrointestinal tract, polysaccharides are not absorbed - they are preliminarily broken down.

The features of these substances are as follows:

• insolubility (or poor solubility) in water;
• yellowish color (or no color);
• they have no smell;
• almost all of them are tasteless (some have a sweetish taste).

The chemical properties of these substances include hydrolysis, which is carried out under the influence of catalysts. The result of the reaction is the breakdown of the compound into structural elements - monosaccharides.

Another property is the formation of derivatives. Polysaccharides can react with acids.

The products formed during these processes are very diverse. These are acetates, sulfates, esters, phosphates, etc.

Examples of polysaccharides:

• starch;
• cellulose;
• glycogen;
• chitin.

Educational video about the functions and classification of carbohydrates:

These substances are important for the full functioning of the body as a whole and cells separately. They supply the body with energy, participate in the formation of cells, and protect internal organs from damage and adverse effects. They also play the role of reserve substances that animals and plants need in case of a difficult period.

2nd order polysaccharides (polysaccharides). Most of the carbohydrates included in the group of 2nd order polysaccharides are substances with a large molecular weight, which give colloidal solutions. When studying the chemical nature of high molecular weight polysaccharides, it is very difficult to obtain them in pure form. Distillation of these substances for the purpose of their purification is impossible, and a number of other substances, in particular mineral salts and proteins present in plants, make it difficult to obtain pure preparations of these carbohydrates. When studying the chemical structure of second-order polysaccharides, methods of introducing various organic radicals into their molecule, for example, methyl CH3- or acetyl CH3-CO-, played a very important role. Methylation and acetylation carried out under mild conditions make it possible to obtain preparations of methyl and acetyl derivatives of high molecular weight polysaccharides of higher purity than the starting materials. At the same time, the introduction of methyl or acetyl radicals into a polysaccharide molecule greatly facilitates the determination of the structure of its constituent monosaccharides, as well as the chemical nature of the bonds connecting the residues of the molecules of individual monosaccharides. A very important method of studying high-molecular-weight polysaccharides is their partial acidic or enzymatic hydrolysis; using mild acid hydrolysis, it was shown that cellobiose is the main structural unit of fiber. Enzymes have shown that maltose is the main building block of starch.

High-molecular carbohydrates are extremely important in the metabolism of plants and animals, in the nutrition of animals and humans, in a number of industries. So, starch is a storage carbohydrate of plants, which makes up most of the substances that make up many of the most important food products: flour, bread, potatoes and cereals. Pectin is found in large quantities in fruits, berries, stems (flax) and root vegetables (sugar beets) and plays an important role in the industrial processing of all these plant products. Fiber is not absorbed by the human gastrointestinal tract, but it is of great industrial importance. Fiber consists of cotton, paper, linen fabrics, it is used to make rayon (viscose) and explosives.

Polysaccharide: starch

It is not a chemically individual substance. In plants, it is in the form of starch grains, which differ in their properties and chemical composition both in the same plant, and especially in different plants.

Starch grains. Starch grains are oval, spherical, or irregular. The sizes (diameter) of starch grains range from 0.002 to 0.15 mm. The largest starch grains are found in potatoes, and the smallest in rice and buckwheat. The characteristic shape of the starch grains makes it easy to distinguish them under a microscope, which is used to detect the impurity of one product to another (for example, corn or oat flour to wheat). Starch grains are divided into simple and complex: simple grains are homogeneous formations (starch grains of potatoes, wheat, rye); complex grains are a combination of smaller particles (starch grains of oats and rice). However, the division of grain crops into crops with simple and complex starch grains is very arbitrary. For example, along with simple starchy grains in wheat, there are also complex ones and, conversely, among the prevailing complex grains in oats, there are also simple ones. The density of starch is 1.5 on average. When examining starch grains in a polarizing microscope, it is found that they have birefringence, that is, they are a crystalline body. Indeed, X-ray studies have shown that starch grains have a crystalline structure.

Starch properties. A characteristic property of starch is its ability to turn blue when adding a solution of iodine in an aqueous solution of potassium iodide. With this reagent, very small amounts of starch can be detected. The appearance of a blue color when iodine is added is apparently explained by the formation of complex and adsorptive compounds between iodine and starch. In cold water, starch grains only swell, but do not dissolve. If a suspension of starch grains in water is gradually heated, then they will swell more and more and, finally, at a certain temperature, the starch forms a viscous colloidal solution called starch paste. The temperature at which this starch change occurs is called the gelatinization temperature. Starch is 96.1-97.6% composed of polysaccharides, which form glucose during acid hydrolysis. The content of minerals in starch is from 0.2 to 0.7%, they are mainly represented by phosphoric acid. Some high molecular weight fatty acids and palmitic, stearic, etc. are also found in starch, the content of which reaches 0.6%. These fatty acids are adsorbed on the polysaccharide fraction of starch; they can be removed from it by extraction with neutral organic solvents such as methyl alcohol. Phosphoric acid in some types of starch - corn, wheat and rice - is an impurity that can be removed by extraction with warm water, alcohol or dioxane, while in others, such as potato, it is linked by an ester bond to the carbohydrate moiety. The presence of such a strong chemical bond of phosphoric acid in potato starch is proved by the fact that glucose-6-phosphate is obtained during its acidic or enzymatic hydrolysis. Some researchers attach great importance to the presence of chemically bound phosphoric acid in potato starch, believing that many physical and chemical properties of starch depend on it. However, this view currently has no reliable evidence. The carbohydrate part of starch consists of two types of polysaccharides that differ in their physical and chemical properties - amylose and amylopectin. Amylose dissolves easily in warm water and gives solutions with a relatively low viscosity. Amylopectin dissolves in water only when heated under pressure and gives very viscous solutions. The molecular weight of amylose is 3x100,000-1000,000, while that of amylopectin reaches hundreds of millions. Amylose solutions are very unstable, and crystalline precipitates precipitate from them upon standing. Amylopectin, on the other hand, produces extremely stable solutions.

Amylose turns blue with iodine solution, and amylopectin turns blue-violet. It was found that the staining of amylose with iodine is accompanied by the formation of a complex chemical compound. In this case, iodine molecules are located inside the spirally bent amylose chains. The staining of amylopectin with iodine appears to be the result of the formation of both complex and adsorption compounds. The content of amylose and amylopectin in starch of various plants has been determined only in recent years, after sufficiently accurate methods were developed. The most important of these methods are as follows: 1) extraction of amylose with hot water; 2) precipitation of amylose from solutions using butyl and other alcohols; 3) selective adsorption of amylose on fiber; 4) potentiometric titration with iodine.

The analyzes of various starches carried out using these methods gave the following results: potato starch contains 19-22% amylose and 78-81% amylopectin; wheat - 24% and 76%, respectively; corn - 21-23% and 77-79%, respectively; rice starch - 17 and 83%, respectively. Apple starch consists only of amylose.

It should be noted that the content of amylose and amylopectin in starch can vary depending on the plant variety and from which part of the plant it is obtained. For example, in this sense, starches of round peas and cerebral peas, starch from leaves and tubers of potatoes, or starch from grains of various varieties of corn are distinguished. If the content of amylose in starch from potato tubers is 22%, then in starch from young shoots of potatoes it is 46%. If the starch from the grain of ordinary corn contains 22% amylose, then in the starch of the so-called waxy corn (Zea mays carina) amylose is completely absent, as a result of which the starch from the grains of this plant turns red-brown with iodine. On the other hand, maize varieties have been bred whose starch contains up to 82% amylose. The ratio of amylose to amylopectin in starch also changes during the maturation of the corn grain. When boiled with acids, starch is converted into glucose. At weaker exposure to acids, the so-called "soluble starch" is formed, often used in laboratories. Under the action of the enzyme amylase, which is contained in a particularly large amount in the germinated grain, in the saliva and in the juice secreted by the pancreas, enzymatic saccharification of starch occurs - it is broken down ultimately with the formation of maltose.

Polysaccharides: dextrins

As an intermediate product in the hydrolysis of starch in a greater or lesser amount, polysaccharides of different molecular weights - dextrins - are formed. At the first stages of hydrolysis, dextrins are obtained, which differ little from starch in molecular size and properties. With iodine, they give a blue or violet color. With further hydrolysis, the molecular weight of dextrins decreases, their ability to restore fehling's liquid increases, and they begin to turn dark brown from iodine, then red, and finally stop reacting with iodine. In accordance with the properties, the following types of dextrins are distinguished: 1) amylodextrins, which are colored by a solution of iodine in a violet-blue color and are white powders, soluble in 25% alcohol, but precipitated by 40% alcohol; the specific rotation of amylodextrins ranges from + 190 to + 196 C; 2) erythrodextrins, stained with iodine in a red-brown color; dissolve in 55% ethyl alcohol, but precipitate at a concentration of 65%; specific rotation of erythrodextrins D \u003d + 194 C; from warm alcoholic solutions, they crystallize in the form of sphero crystals; 3) achroodextrins that are not stained with iodine, soluble in 70% alcohol, form spherocrystals upon evaporation of hot alcohol solutions; specific rotation + 192 С; 4) maltodextrins do not react with iodine and are not precipitated with alcohol, the specific rotation is from + 181 to + 183 C.

Polysaccharide: inulin

High molecular weight carbohydrate, soluble in water, precipitated from aqueous solutions with the addition of alcohol. Hydrolysis with acids forms fructofuranose and a small amount of glucopyranose. It is found in large quantities in the tubers of the earthen pear and dahlia, in the roots of dandelion, kok-sagiz and chicory, in artichokes, in the roots, leaves and stems of the rubber plant guayula (Parthenium argentatum). In these plants, inulin replaces starch. In dahlia and artichoke tubers, inulin accounts for more than 50% of the wet tissue mass. The biosynthesis and conversion of inulin and inulin-like polyfructosides have been especially well studied for the example of an earthen pear and artichoke (D. Edel'man, R. Dedoner). Plants containing inulin are used to produce fructose. Since all fructosides, including inulin, are very easily hydrolyzed by acids, the production of fructose from inulin-containing raw materials is carried out precisely by acid hydrolysis. The number of fructose residues bound in the inulin molecule by glycosidic bonds between the l and 2 carbon atoms is 34. Plants, molds and yeast contain a special enzyme - and nulase, which hydrolyzes inulin to form fructose.

Polysaccharides: polyfructosides

Many plants contain various other polysaccharides that give fructofuranose during acid hydrolysis. These are, for example, irisin from iris rhizomes, asparagosine from asparagus roots, polyfructosides from the stems, leaves and rhizomes of many cereals, rye sekalin, etc. In ripening cereals of rye, wheat, oats and barley - these polysaccharides are found in very large quantities. In the early stages of ripening, rye grain contains up to 30% of them on dry matter. As the grain matures, these polysaccharides are gradually converted to starch, which indicates the ease of conversion of fructose to glucose in plants. Polyfructosides contained in the leaves, stems and grains of cereals differ in their molecular weights, solubility, and other properties. Some of them are l-order polysaccharides. Thus, beta-levulin found in rye stems is a crystalline substance corresponding to the formula C12H22OH, and therefore contains two fructose residues; Sekalin, isolated from the leaves and stems of rye, has a molecular weight of 663, which corresponds to the content of four fructose residues in its molecule. The colloidal polyfructoside graminin contained in mature rye grains contains 10 fructose residues in the molecule. Thus, in the rye plant, there are transitions from fructosides with a small molecular weight: 1 mass to polyfructosides with a large molecular weight. Similar transitions from low molecular weight crystalline polyfructosides to higher molecular weight compounds, up to inulin, take place in the earth pear plant. Thus, polyfructosides in plants form a homologous series of substances with an increasing molecular size. The extreme members of this series are difructoside beta-levulin and inulin, the molecule of which contains 34 fructose residues. Polyfructosides, like inulin, usually contain very small amounts of glucopyranose and are very easily hydrolyzed by dilute acids.

Polysaccharide: Glycogen

A polysaccharide contained in the tissues of the body of humans and animals, in fungi and yeast, in the grain of sweet corn. Plays an important role in the conversion of carbohydrates in the animal body and in yeast during alcoholic fermentation. When boiled with acids, forms glucose. Glycogen dissolves in hot water to form opalescent solutions. From iodine it turns red, brown, less often violet. Structurally, glycogen is similar to amylopectin, although it differs from it in a larger molecular weight. The molecules of both polysaccharides have a branched structure, but glycogen is characterized by a more "compact" molecule.

Polysaccharide: Kallose

Callose ... A polysaccharide found in the sieve tubes of plants. It is a glucan, the molecule of which consists of approximately 100 glucose residues interconnected by beta 1-3 bonds. Apparently, callose plays some important physiological role in plants, since it is easily formed and is just as easily consumed.

Polysaccharide: Lichenin

Likhenin ... A polysaccharide found in lichens. Lichenin is especially abundant in the lichen called "Icelandic moss" (Cetraria islandica), as well as in lichens from the genus Alectoria ochroleuca. These lichens contain up to 45-50% of lichenin on dry matter. Lichenin dissolves in hot water and in dilute aqueous solutions of alkalis; upon hydrolysis with acids it forms 98-99% D-glucose. Apparently, lichenin is a mixture of homologous polymers of different molecular weights. Glucose residues are linked in lichenin in two ways - 73% by glucosidic bonds between the 1st and 4th carbon atoms (as in amylose) and by 27% by glucosidic bonds between the 1st and 3rd carbon atoms. The gastrointestinal tract of reindeer, for which lichens are the main food, digests lichenin by 78%. At the same time, the digestive juices of the reindeer themselves do not digest lichenin; its digestion is carried out by the bacteria of the deer digestive tract. Lichenin is not absorbed by the human body. Lichenin can be used as a gelling agent in the confectionery industry; the inhabitants of the North use lichens for the preparation of berry jelly and jelly.

Polysaccharide: Fiber

(cellulose) is a polysaccharide that makes up the bulk of plant cell walls. Fiber is insoluble in water, it only swells in it. Fiber makes up over 50% of wood. In cotton fibers, it is more than 90%. When boiled with strong sulfuric acid, the fiber is completely converted into glucose. With weaker hydrolysis, cellobiose is obtained from fiber. In the fiber molecule, cellobiose residues are linked by glycosidic bonds in the form of a long chain. The molecular weight of fiber has not been precisely established. It is believed that fiber is not an individual substance, but a mixture of homologous substances. The molecular weights of fiber obtained from various sources fluctuate quite strongly: cotton - 330,000 (in the chain of 2020 glycosidic residues); ramie - 430,000 (2660 remains), spruce wood - 220,000 (1360 remains). With the help of X-ray diffraction analysis, it was found that the fiber molecules have a threadlike shape. These filamentous molecules are combined into bundles - micelles. Each micelle contains approximately 40-60 fiber molecules. The combination of individual fiber molecules into micelles occurs due to hydrogen bonds, which are carried out both due to the hydrogen atoms of the hydroxyl groups of the fiber and due to the water molecules adsorbed by the fiber. In plant cell walls, cellulose micelles are hydrogen bonded to various heteropolysaccharides. For example, in the white maple, they are xyloglucan interconnected by glycosidic bonds, consisting of residues of glucose, xylose, galactose and fucose; arabinogalactan, built from the remains of arabinose and galactose; rhamnogalacturonan, formed by residues of galacturonic acid and rhamnose. In addition, there is evidence that a special, hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein extensin is also involved in the construction of the plant cell wall, especially in the early stages of its formation. When lignification of cell walls, lignin also accumulates in them. Fiber is not digested in the human gastrointestinal tract. It is digested only by ruminants, in the stomach of which there are special bacteria that hydrolyze fiber with the help of the enzyme cellulase secreted by them. Hemicellulose (semi-cellulose). Under this name, a large group of high molecular weight polysaccharides that do not dissolve in water, but are soluble in alkaline solutions, are united. Hemicelluloses are found in significant quantities in the lignified parts of plants: straw, seeds, nuts, wood, corn cobs. A large amount of hemicellulose is found in bran. Hemicelluloses are more easily hydrolyzed by acids than fiber. At the same time, they form mannose, galactose, arabinose or xylose, and therefore are respectively named - mannans, galactans and pentosans (araban or xylan).

Mannan containing from 200 to 400 mannose residues per molecule, found in yeast. A certain amount of mannans is contained in the wood of conifers (from 2 to 7%). The water-soluble mannan and galactan are secreted by the mycelium of molds belonging to the genus Penicillium. Galactans are widespread in plants and are part of the cell walls of straw, wood, and many seeds. A typical representative of this group of polysaccharides is galactan, which is found in lupine seeds. Xylans are contained in significant quantities in straw (up to 28%), wood (in oak up to 25%) and plant fibers. Usually xylan contained in any plant object is a mixture of different polysaccharides with similar molecular weights (usually from 50 to 200 xylose residues), but differing in the nature of the sugar residue in the "branches" of the molecule.

Polysaccharides: mucus and gum

Slime and gum. This group of colloidal polysaccharides includes water-soluble carbohydrates that form extremely viscous and sticky solutions. Typical representatives of this group are gum, released in the form of influxes of cherry, plum or almond trees in places where branches and trunks are damaged. Mucus is found in large quantities in flaxseeds and rye. Their presence explains the high viscosity of the broth used in medicine from flaxseeds or water talker of rye flour. Cherry glue polysaccharides are composed of residues of galactose, mannose, arabinose, D-glucuronic acid and a small amount of xylose. The mucus of rye grains is almost 90% pentosans. They swell strongly in water and give very viscous solutions. Their viscosity is much higher than the viscosity of solutions of gelatin, starch paste or protein. During acid hydrolysis of rye grain mucus, xylose, arabinose and a small amount of galactose are formed.

Polysaccharides: Pectins

High-molecular compounds of a carbohydrate nature, contained in large quantities in berries, fruits, tubers and plant stems. In plants, pectins are present in the form of insoluble protopectin, which is a compound of methoxylated polygalacturonic acid with galactan and araban of the cell wall. Protopectin is converted into soluble pectin only after treatment with dilute acids or under the action of a special enzyme protopectinase. Soluble pectin is precipitated from an aqueous solution with alcohol or 50% acetone. A characteristic and important property of pectin is its ability to form jellies in the presence of acid and sugar. This property is widely used in the confectionery industry for the production of jelly, jam, marmalade, marshmallow and fruit caramel fillings. The formation of pectin jelly occurs in the presence of 65-70% sugar (sucrose or hexose); this concentration approximately corresponds to a saturated solution of sucrose. The resulting jelly contains from 0.2 to 1.5% pectin. Best of all, the formation of pectin jellies occurs at a pH of 3.1-3.5. Pectins of various origins differ in their ability to gelling, in the content of ash and CH3O- methoxyl groups.

When soluble pectin is exposed to dilute alkalis or the pectase enzyme, the methoxyl groups are easily cleaved off - methyl alcohol and free pectic acid are formed, which is polygalacturonic acid. Pectic acid easily gives salts - pectates. In the form of calcium pectate, it easily precipitates from solution; this is used for the quantitative determination of pectin substances. Pectic acid in the presence of sugar is not capable of forming jellies like soluble pectin. Therefore, in the industrial production of pectin, they try, if possible, to avoid its alkaline or enzymatic hydrolysis, which causes a decrease in the gelling ability of pectin. Pectins play an important role in the ripening, storage and industrial processing of various fruits and vegetables. During fruit development, protopectin is deposited in the cell walls and can accumulate in fruit in significant quantities (eg, pears, apples and citrus fruits). Fruit ripening is characterized by the conversion of protopectin into soluble pectin. So, in apples, the content of pectins reaches a maximum approximately by the period of harvesting. With subsequent storage of fruits at temperatures close to 1 C, the content of protopectin gradually decreases and the accumulation of soluble pectin occurs. Pectin content in fruits and vegetables,% Apples - 0.82-1.29, Apricots - 1.03, Plum - 0.96-1.14, Black currant - 1.52, Cranberry - 0.5-1.30 , Carrots - 2.5, Sugar beets - 2.5. Pectins also play an important role in the processing of plant fibers such as flax. The process of washing flax is based on the fact that under the action of special microorganisms that secrete enzymes that hydrolyze pectin substances, there is a maceration of flax stems and separation of fibers from each other.

Polysaccharides: Agar-agar

Agar agar ... High molecular weight polysaccharide found in some seaweed belonging to the genera Gelidium, Gracilaria, Pterocladia and Ahnfeltia. In the USSR, agar-agar was mined from the crimson algae Anfeltia, which grows in the White, Barents and Baltic Seas, as well as in the water bodies of the Far East. Agar-agar is insoluble in cold water, but dissolves in it when heated. Its aqueous solutions solidify on cooling in the form of jelly. Agar-agar is used in bacteriology for the preparation of solid nutrient media, in the confectionery industry for the manufacture of various jellies, pastilles, marmalade, and jams. Agar-agar is a mixture of at least two polysaccharides - agarose and agaropectin. Agarose, most likely, consists of D-galactose and 3,6L-galactose residues linked by alpha-1,3- and beta-1,4-glycosidic bonds. Much less is known about the structure of agaropectin, which appears to be composed of chains formed by D-galactopyranose residues, some of which are ester-linked to sulfuric acid residues. The crimson algae phyllophora, which grows in large quantities in the Black Sea, contains agaroid and agaroidin - gelling substances of a carbohydrate nature that differ from agar in their chemical nature. A jelly-like substance carrageenin is obtained from the crimson alga Chondrus. The chemical structure of agaroid, agaroidin and carrageenin is not well understood. Carrageenin is a polysaccharide consisting mainly of galactopyranose residues linked by alpha-1,3- and beta-1,4-glycosidic bonds; most of the residues of galactopyranose at the fourth carbon atom are linked by an ester bond with the residue of sulfuric acid. Carrageenin appears to have a branched structure and is composed of components with different molecular weights ranging from 358,000 to 700,000.

Alginic acid. This polysaccharide is an integral part of the cell walls of many algae belonging to the genera Macrocystis, Laminaria and Fucus. Alginic acid, apparently, is an analogue of pectic acid, but consists of D-mannuronic and L-guluronic acid residues linked by beta-glycosidic bonds located between the l-carbon atom of one mannuronic or guluronic acid residue and the 4th carbon atom of another ... In algae, alginic acid is present in the form of salts and is contained in them in an amount of 30% of the dry mass of algae. Alginic acid and its salts, mainly sodium, are widely used as emulsifying agents; they are especially widely used as stabilizers in the production of ice cream and various technical emulsions.

Bacterial polysaccharides

Bacterial polysaccharides ... Bacteria form significant amounts of polysaccharides, which are contained in the cytoplasm or are deposited in the form of nutrient reserves, or are located on the cell surface, forming a mucous protective layer (capsule). Often, the capsules dissolve in the liquid in which bacteria grow. In pathogenic bacteria, the capsule is, first of all, a means of protecting the cell from phagocytes. In soil bacteria, like some nitrogen-fixing bacteria, the capsule-forming substances seem to protect the cells to some extent from soil protozoa. Typical representatives of bacterial polysaccharides - dextrans - a group of polyglucosides formed from cane sugar different kinds Leuconostoc. Some non-pathogenic microorganisms, when developing on sucrose solutions, form polyfructosides called levans. Significant amounts of levan are formed, for example, by some species of streptococcus and hay bacillus Bacillus subtilis, which causes the so-called stringy bread disease. Many levans are produced by bacteria that are pathogenic to plants, such as Bacillus pruni, but the possible role of these polysaccharides in the development of the disease is unclear. Mucous polysaccharides, like levan and dextrans, also form soil bacteria, and, apparently, these carbohydrates play a certain role in soil aggregation and moisture retention in it. Capsular polysaccharides of nitrogen-fixing bacteria for example, nodule Rhizobium sp have a peculiar structure: These polysaccharides, along with glucopyranose residues, contain glucuronic acid residues. Some specific bacterial polysaccharides play an extremely important role in the phenomena of animal and human immunity.

Polysaccharides can be linear or branched. Linear polysaccharides have one non-reducing and one reducing end; in branched polysaccharides also m b. only one reducing end, while the number of non-reducing terminal monosaccharide residues is 1 more than the number of branches. Thanks to the glycosidic reducing end, polysaccharides can be attached to a non-carbohydrate nature, for example. to and with education and, to with education, etc .; in relatively rare cases, the formation of cyclic polysaccharides is observed.

Hydroxy-, carboxy- and monosaccharide residues included in polysaccharides, in turn, can serve as attachment points for non-carbohydrate groups, such as org residues. and inorg. to-t (with education, etc.), pyruvic acid (forming cyclic acetal), (forming with uronic to-tami), etc.

P olysaccharides, built from the remains of only one, called. (homoglycans); according to the nature of this, glucans, galactans, xylans, arabinans, etc. are distinguished. The full name of the polysaccharide should contain information about abs. configuration of its constituent monosaccharide residues, the size of the cycles, the position of bonds and the configuration of glycosidic centers; according to these requirements, the strong name will be, for example, poly (1: 4) -b-D-glucopyranan.

P olysaccharides, built from the remains of two or more, called. (heteroglycans). These include arabinogalactans, arabinoxylans, etc. Strict names. heteroglycans (as well as those containing branches or several types of links) are cumbersome and inconvenient to use; usually use widespread trivialname (for example, lamtaran,), and abbreviated notation is often used to depict structural f-l (see also):

Galactomannan; a -D-galactopyrano-b -D-mannopyranan(Manp and Galp are the corresponding remnants and in the feastnous form)

4-O-Methylglucuronoxylane; (4-O-methyl) -a -D-glucopyran-urono-b -D-xylopyranan (Xylp and GlcpA-corresponding residues and glucuronic acid in pyranose form, Me \u003d CH 3)

Hyaluronic acid, glucosaminoglucuronoglycan; 2-acet-amido-2-deoxy-b-D-glucopyrano-b-D-glucopyranurono-glycan [Ac \u003d CH 3 C (O)]

Polysaccharides in natureconstitute the main mass of org. in-va located in the Earth. They perform three essential types alive. f-ts, acting as energetic. reserve, structural components and or protective substances.

Well-known reserve polysaccharides are galactomannans and some p-glucans. These polysaccharides are capable of being rapidly hydrolyzed by the existing ones, and their content strongly depends on the conditions of existence and the stage of development.

Structural polysaccharides can be divided into two classes. The first includes insoluble in, forming fibrous structures and serving as a reinforcing material of the cell wall (higher plants and certain algae, fungi, b-D-xylans and b-D-mannans of certain algae and higher plants). The second class includes gelling polysaccharides that provide elasticity of cell walls and c. The characteristic representatives of this class of polysaccharides are sulfatir. () will connect. animals, sulfatir. galactans of red algae, alginic to-you, and nek-ry hemicelluloses of higher plants.

Protective polysaccharides include higher plants (hetero-polysaccharides of complex composition and structure), which are formed in response to damage to the plant. , and numerous. extracellular polysaccharides and algae that form a protective capsule or modify properties.

The second type is the assembly of the oligosaccharide "repeating unit" according to the first type of district and its subsequent with the formation of strictly regular polymeric, characteristic of polysaccharide lipopolysac chains gram-negative bacteria or for bacterial capsular polysaccharides.

Finally, polysaccharides built according to the first or second type can undergo post-polymerization. modifications (third type), to-rye include the substitution of H hydroxyl groups for acyl residues (, sulfation), the addition of side mono- and oligosaccharide residues and even a change in the configuration of individual monosaccharide units [in this way, as a result, at C-5 the remains of L-guluronic to-you from D-mannuronic in the composition of alginates (see), as well as the remains of L-iduronic to-you from D-glucuronic in the composition]. The last districts often lead to a violation (masking) of the origin. regularity of chains of polysaccharides and to the formation of irregular (plural) or block (alginic to - you,) structures.

Properties.Most polysaccharides are colorless. amorphous, decomposing under heat. above 200 ° C. Polysaccharides, to-rykh have a branched structure or have a polyanionic character due to carboxyl or sulfate groups, as a rule, are quite easily soluble. in, despite the high pier. masses, while linear polysaccharides with rigid elongated (,), form strong ordered supramolecular associates, as a result of which practically no sol. in . Known interm. cases of block polysaccharides, in which some sites are prone to intermol. associations, while others do not; water solutions of such polysaccharides, under certain conditions, pass into (, alginic to-you, carrageenans,).

P-rim polysaccharides can be precipitated from water solutions by mixing with org. p-singers (e.g.,). The p-value of a particular polysaccharide determines the method for isolating it from nature. object. So, they get it by washing all the accompanying substances with suitable ones, while other polysaccharides are first transferred into solution and then isolated with fractional p-solvents, by means of the formation of insoluble complexes or, etc.

Information about the configuration of glycosidic centers and the sequence of monosaccharide residues in is obtained by carrying out partial cleavage of polysaccharides and establishing the structure of the resulting polysaccharides. Partial acidic cleavage is a universal method of cleavage, but in general it gives complex mixtures in low yields. top scores obtained with more specific. impact on the polysaccharide chemical. (acetolysis, anhydrous HF) or.

A peculiar way of fragmentation of polysaccharides is Smith's cleavage, including periodate, obtained polyaldehyde in polyol by the action of NaBH 4 and mild acidic, destroying acetal groups (but not glycosidic bonds, not affected by periodate). Smith's method often makes it possible to obtain fragments of polysaccharides that are inaccessible with the usual acidic or enzymatic (the stage of formation of polyaldehydes is not shown):

With chem. methods of establishing primary competes successfully. The PMR and 13 C spectra contain the most valuable information about functions. the composition of polysaccharides, the positions of intermonomeric bonds, the size of the cycles of monosaccharide residues, the configurations of glycosidic centers and the sequence in the chain; from the spectra 13 C can determine the abs. configurations of individual monosaccharide residues (if the absolute configurations of neighboring units are known), as well as to obtain data on the regular structure of polysaccharides. If the monosaccharide composition of a linear regular polysaccharide, built from repeating oligosaccharide units, is known, then the problem of establishing its complete structure from the spectrum is successfully solved with the help of appropriate computer programs.

For use in medical practice K. Subsequently, when studying plants, they switched to analysis by means of extracts. Alkaloids are nitrogen-containing organic substances of natural origin. In medical practice, they are used as a basis for the preparation of various ointments and for the production of oil extracts from plant materials.

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INTRODUCTION:

Conclusion:

List of references:

INTRODUCTION

From time immemorial, scientists believed that plants contain special substances, which they called "active principles." For use in medical practice, K. Galen extracted active principles from plants with the help of wine, vinegar, honey or their aqueous solutions. Paracelsus raised the issue of active ingredients especially sharply and recommended that they be extracted only with ethyl alcohol (modern tinctures and extracts).

In an effort to obtain the active principles of plants, scientists have tried a variety of methods. Subsequently, when studying plants, they switched to analysis by means of extracts. About 1665 I. Glauber obtained "improved plant principles" in the form of powders from many poisonous plants with the help of aqueous solutions of nitric acid. Now these substances are called alkaloids. In addition to alkaloids, other active substances were found that somehow affect the human body.

Alkaloids are nitrogen-containing organic substances of natural origin. In plants, alkaloids are often found (a mixture of several alkaloids) in the form of salts of organic and inorganic acids. The most widespread alkaloids are caffeine, atropine, echinopsin, strychnine, cocaine, berberine, papaverine, etc.

Glycosides are complex nitrogen-free compounds consisting of sugary and non-sugary parts. Among the glycosides, cardiac glycosides, anthraglycosides, saponins and other substances are distinguished. Glycosides have an effect on the heart, gastrointestinal tract, etc.

Flavonoids - heterocyclic oxygenated compounds yellow color, poorly soluble in water, with various biological activities. They enter the human body only with plant foods.

Tannins - complex substances, derivatives of polyatomic phenols, have the ability to coagulate adhesive solutions and give insoluble precipitates with alkaloids. They are widespread in almost all plants.

Essential oils - a mixture of volatile nitrogen-free substances with a strong characteristic odor. They have antimicrobial, analgesic, antitussive, anti-inflammatory, choleretic and diuretic effects.

Vitamins are organic compounds of various chemical structures, which are necessary for the normal functioning of almost all processes in the body. Most of them enter the body with plant and animal food.

Fatty oils are esters of glycerol and high molecular weight fatty acids. In medical practice, they are used as a basis for the preparation of various ointments and for the production of oil extracts from plant materials. Some of them, like castor oil, are laxative.

Microelements - substances that, together with vitamins, participate in the vital important processesoccurring in the body. Their imbalance can lead to the development of serious diseases.

Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates; a large and widespread group of organic compounds that, along with proteins and fats, are necessary for the life of all living organisms

They are one of the main sources of energy generated by the body's metabolism. Polysaccharides take part in immune processes, provide adhesion of cells in tissues, and are the bulk of organic matter in the biosphere.

1. Polysaccharides. Their characteristic

The diverse biological activity of plant polysaccharides has been established. They have antibiotic, antiviral, antitumor, antidote, antilipemic and antisclerotic activity. Antilipemic and anti-sclerotic role of plant polysaccharides is due to their ability to give complexes with proteins and lipoproteins of blood plasma.

Some Soviet pharmacologists (A.D. Turovan, A.S. Gladkikh) believe that the most promising direction in the study of polysaccharides is to study their effect on viral diseases, on the course of peptic ulcer disease and gastritis.

Polysaccharides include: gums, mucus, pectin substances, inulin, starch, fiber.

Comedy - This is a thick slimy sap, protruding either randomly or from cuts and wounds on the bark of many trees. In a living plant, gums are formed by a special mucus transformation of the cellulose of the parenchyma cells, as well as the starch inside the cells.

In many plants, small amounts of gum are formed normally, physiologically, but the abundant formation of gum is considered already as a pathological process arising from injury and leading to the filling of the wound with mucus.

The formed gums are not involved in the general metabolism of plants. In appearance, gum preparations are usually round or flat pieces, for some types of gum they are very characteristic, transparent or only translucent, colorless or colored to brown; have no smell, no taste or a weak sweetish-slimy.

In water, some gums dissolve, forming colloidal solutions, while others only swell. Insoluble in alcohol, ether and other organic solvents. Chemically investigated insufficiently.

Consist of polysaccharides with calcium, magnesium and potassium salts of sugar-chained acids. These are cherry, apricot, almond, plum glue, gum arabic, or gum arabic. Gum arabic has activity similar to ACTH. Their mechanism of action is different.

Slime - these are nitrogen-free substances similar in chemical composition to pectins and cellulose. It is a viscous liquid produced by the mucous glands of plants and is a solution of glycoproteins. Mucus is formed in plants as a result of physiological disturbances or in various diseases, as a result of which the membranes and cellular contents die off. The outer layers of algae cells, seeds of plantain, quince, flax, mustard, as well as the inner layers of underground organs - marshmallow, orchis (salep) are capable of mucousness. The beneficial effect of mucus is that they prevent the plant from drying out, promote the germination of seeds and their spread.

Mucus has a semi-liquid consistency and is extracted from raw materials with water. They belong to the group of neutral polysaccharides and are a complex mixture of various chemical compositions. They are based on sugar derivatives and partially potassium, magnesium, calcium salts of uronic acids.

Mucus and gums are so similar that it is not always possible to distinguish between them. Mucus, unlike gum, is obtained not in solid form, but by extraction with water. Mucous substances help to slow down the absorption of drugs and their longer action in the body, which is of great importance in therapy.

Pectins (from the Greek pectos - thickened, coagulated) are close to gums and mucus, are part of the intercellular adhesive. Widely distributed in the plant kingdom. Water-soluble pectins are of particular value. Their aqueous solutions with sugar in the presence of organic acids form jellies that have an adsorbent and anti-inflammatory effect.

Pectin is a group of high molecular weight compounds that make up the cell walls and interstitial matter of higher plants. The maximum amount of pectins is found in fruits and roots.

Pectin substances were discovered by Braconno in 1825. However, despite the fact that their study has been going on for more than a hundred years, the chemical structure of these compounds was clarified only in the second half of the 20th century. The reason for this is the difficulty of obtaining pure preparations of pectin substances in an unchanged state.

Until the XX century. it was believed that the neutral sugars arabinose and galactose are involved in the construction of a chain of pectin substances, but in 1917 it was found that they have a structure similar to cellulose, that is, they consist of galacturonic acid residues connected into long chains using glycosidic bonds. Since the 1970s. Many foreign scientists, on the basis of their studies, concluded that pectin substances are a complex group of acidic polysaccharides that may contain a significant amount of neutral sugar components (L-arabinose, D-galactose, L-rhamnose).

Pectins are widely used in various sectors of the national economy, especially in the food industry, where they are used as thickening agents for the production of jams, jellies, marmalade; in bakery - to prevent staleness of bakery products; in the production of sauces and ice cream - as an emulsifying agent; when canning - to prevent corrosion of tin cans, etc.

The use of pectins in medicine is extremely promising. Pectin (gelatinous substances of plants) bind strontium, cobalt, radioactive isotopes. Most of the pectins are not digested or absorbed by the body, but are excreted from it along with harmful substances. Berries of strawberries, rose hips, cranberries, black currants, apples, lemons, oranges, viburnum, etc. are especially rich in pectins.

Inulin - a polysaccharide formed by fructose residues. It is a storage carbohydrate of many plants, mainly Compositae (chicory, artichoke, etc.). It is used as a substitute for starch and sugar in diabetes mellitus, a natural component obtained from plant roots.

Inulin is used in the form of dietary supplements (drops, tablets) for the prevention and treatment of various diseases. It has no contraindications. Preparations containing inulin are especially valuable for diabetics. Natural fructose, which inulin contains, is a unique sugar that completely replaces glucose in cases where glucose is not absorbed. Therefore, the dietary value of inulin is great.

Starch - the end product of assimilation of carbon dioxide by plants. It is deposited mainly in tubers, fruits, seeds and the core of the stem. In the body, glucose is formed from starch. We get starch from plants, where it is in the form of tiny grains.

Plants accumulate starch in small grains in trunks and stems, roots, leaves, fruits and seeds. Potatoes, maize, rice and wheat contain large amounts of starch. Plants produce starch so that it serves as food for young shoots and shoots, until they are able to produce their own food.

For humans and animals, starch is an energy-intensive food. Like sugar, it is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Unsweetened starch: usually tasteless. Certain chemicals in the mouth, stomach, and intestines convert starchy foods into grape sugar, which is easily digestible. A person gets starch from plants, crushing those parts of them where it accumulates. Then the starch is washed out with water and settles to the bottom of large containers, after which the water is squeezed out of the raw starch, the mass is dried and ground into a powder, in the form of which starch is usually made. Starch does not dissolve in cold water, but in hot water it forms a viscous solution, which, when cooled, turns into a gelatinous mass. In a diluted form it is used as an enveloping agent for gastrointestinal diseases (raw potato juice, jelly). Tubers, roots, rhizomes, bark are rich in starch, where it accumulates as a depot of nutrients. Since the roots of chicory, dandelion and elecampane tubers, in addition to starch, contain inulin, these plants are used to treat diabetes.

Fiber or cellulose, is the main constituent of plant cell membranes and is a complex carbohydrate from the group of non-sugar-like polysaccharides. Previously, it was believed that fiber is not digested in the intestines. Recently, it has been found that some types of fiber are partially absorbed. Fiber is the roughest part of the plant. This is a plexus of plant fibers that make up cabbage leaves, peels of legumes, fruits, vegetables, and seeds. Dietary fiber is a complex form of carbohydrates that our digestive system cannot break down. But this is one of essential elements human nutrition. Dietary fiber shortens the residence time of food in the gastrointestinal tract. The longer food stays in the esophagus, the longer it takes for it to be excreted. Dietary fiber accelerates this process and at the same time helps to cleanse the body. Adequate fiber intake normalizes bowel function.

2. The mechanism of action of polysaccharides

Despite the differences in production methods, the chemical structure for polysaccharides is characterized by a close manifestation of physiological effects: sorption of radionuclides, heavy metals, bacteria and bacterial toxins, normalization of lipid metabolism in hyperlipidemia of various etiologies, activation of the secreting and motor function of the intestine, regulation of immunity, modulation of the endocrine system, optimizing the functioning of the hepato-biliary system.

Polysaccharides have a direct effect on the tissue structure and functions of the gastrointestinal tract, liver, kidneys and other organs, which is revealed at the biochemical and morphological level. In addition, polysaccharides affect tissues and organ systems that are not directly in contact with them during oral, intravenous, intraperitoneal, subcutaneous injection into the body.

The most studied physiological and metabolic aspects of the effect of polysaccharides on the liver against the background of pathology. The need to disclose the fundamental principles associated with the physiological action of polysaccharides under conditions of norm and disease of various etiologies is relevant for their use in practical medicine.

Here is how Dr. S. Aleshin describes the mechanisms of action of polysaccharides: “Unfortunately, the immune system does not work perfectly as we would like. Viruses, especially in hepatitis B and C, go to various tricks to lull the vigilance of the immune system. cancers that resort to numerous tricks to trick the immune system. Therefore, very often in these conditions, the immune system resembles a dormant watchman who does not notice how damage and destruction of the body is going on. Mushroom polysaccharides, on the other hand, when entering the body, activate the immune system, which leaves from a sleeping state and begins to actively fight, tearing disguise from his enemies. "

Pectins and pectin-containing products entering the digestive tract form a sticky substance that very easily binds to many metals, primarily lead, strontium, calcium, cobalt, as well as other heavy metals, radioactive substances that are not able to be absorbed into the bloodstream. By this, pectins protect the body from radioactive substances and heavy metal salts that penetrate into the human body with food and water.

Polysaccharides activate the hepatic-intestinal circulation and remove excess cholesterol from the body. Therefore, polysaccharides play an important role in the prevention of atherosclerosis.

The mucous substances of the composition of some plants, after ingestion, form protective covers on the surface of the mucous membrane of the gastrointestinal tract and thus protect them from irritation by toxins, medicinal substances, etc.

Pectins enhance intestinal motor function, prevent constipation.

The therapeutic effect of mucus is due to the protection of the nerve endings of the mucous membrane of the gastrointestinal tract from the irritating effects of other substances.

Polysaccharides increase the activity of the cilia of the ciliated epithelium of the respiratory tract, which leads to an increase in the secretion of bronchial mucus, as a result of which the sputum dilutes and facilitates its separation when coughing.

3. Medical and biological significance of polysaccharides contained in plants

The medico-biological significance of polysaccharides is diverse. Many of them (starch, glycogen, inulin, etc.) are reserve nutrients in plant and animal organisms. Some polysaccharides (for example, chondroitinsulfuric acid, capsular polysaccharides and fiber) are exclusively supportive and protective.

A number of polysaccharides (mannap, galactans, etc.) are used both as building material and as nutritious material. Hyaluronic acid, which constitutes the intercellular substance of animal tissues, along with the structural function, regulates the distribution of vital substances in the tissues. Heparin prevents blood clotting in humans and animals. In many cases, polysaccharides give very strong complexes with proteins, forming glycoproteins that perform a number of important functions in the body.

Recently, interest in plant polysaccharides has increased due to the fact that these compounds, previously considered inert, have a wide spectrum of pharmacological activity.

Used medicinal plants containing polysaccharides as expectorant, enveloping, diaphoretic, laxatives. Medicines used as wound-healing, anti-inflammatory drugs are obtained from polysaccharides. The possibility of using polysaccharides as blood substitute solutions has been confirmed.

Pectins of grapes, currants and blueberries have significant antifibrinolytic activity. Alginates also give a pronounced hemostatic effect.

The diverse biological activity of plant polysaccharides was established: antibiotic, antiviral, antitumor, antidote. Plant polysaccharides play an important role in reducing vascular lipemia and atheromatosis due to the ability to form complexes with proteins and lipoproteins of blood plasma.

Inulin serves as a storage carbohydrate; it is found in many plants, mainly in the Asteraceae family, as well as in the bellflower, lily, lobelia, and violet families.

In the tubers and roots of dahlias, narcissus, hyacinth, tuberose, chicory and ground pear (Jerusalem artichoke), scorzonera and oat root, the inulin content reaches 10-12% (up to 60% of the dry matter content).

Inulin lowers sugar levels, prevents complications of diabetes mellitus, and is also used for obesity, kidney disease, arthritis and other types of diseases. It has a positive effect on metabolism. Inulin removes from the body a lot of harmful substances (heavy metals, toxins), reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases, strengthens the immune system.

Part of inulin is broken down in the body, the unbroken part is excreted from the body, carrying along with it a lot of substances unnecessary for the body - from heavy metals and cholesterol to various toxins. Moreover, inulin promotes the absorption of vitamins and minerals in the body.

In addition, inulin has an immunomodulatory and hepatoprotective effect, counteracting the occurrence of oncological diseases. To enhance the action of inulin in dietary supplements, it is combined with the juices of other natural healers, such as celery, parsley, sea buckthorn, rose hips, viburnum, ginseng, licorice, eleutherococcus.

Natural sources of inulin are Jerusalem artichoke, dandelion, chicory, burdock, elecampane.

Starch is also used in medicine. It is used as a filler, in surgery for the preparation of fixed dressings, as a covering for gastrointestinal diseases.

In pharmacy, starch is used for the preparation of ointments and powders. It has been established that starch reduces the content of cholesterol in the liver and blood serum, promotes the synthesis of riboflavin by intestinal bacteria. Riboflavin, on the other hand, entering enzymes and coenzymes, promotes the conversion of cholesterol into bile acids and their excretion from the body, which is of great importance in preventing atherosclerosis. Starch contributes to the intensification of fatty acid metabolism. In children's practice and for skin diseases, starch is used as a dusting powder. Inside and in enemas, a decoction is used as an enveloping agent.

Plants accumulate starch in small grains in trunks and stems, roots, leaves, fruits and seeds. Potatoes, maize, rice and wheat contain large amounts of starch. The use of starch in medicine:

Gums are used to prepare oil emulsions, tablets, pills - as a binder. In medicine, raw materials containing mucus are used as an expectorant, emollient, and anti-inflammatory agent. Also, gums are used as emulsifiers, coating and adhesives for the preparation of pills and tablets (pill mass). In medicine, gums are used as auxiliary substances in the preparation of a number of dosage forms.

Mucus and gums are used as enveloping and emollients due to their ability to form jellies and colloidal solutions that create a protective cover for the nerve endings of the mucous membrane of the pharynx, gastrointestinal tract, bronchioles, etc.

The biological role of mucus is as follows: as reserve substances, they protect the plant from drying out, promote the spread and consolidation of plant seeds.

They are used in the treatment of gastritis, peptic ulcer, colitis, enterocolitis, in case of poisoning with certain poisons, in diseases of the respiratory tract. Mucous substances help to slow down the absorption and, therefore, a longer action of drugs in the body. Topically applied as a poultice. As mucous substances, flaxseed (5-12% mucus), orchis tubers, chamomile, marshmallow root, salep (up to 50% mucus), scepter mullein, tripartite sequence, plantain seeds, leaves of large plantain, lanceolate and medium plantain, are used as mucous substances. linden flowers, etc. The biological role of gums:

Protect plants from infection by microorganisms, filling the formed cracks and other damage to the trunks.

Plant polysaccharides, in particular pectins, exhibit biological activity in relation to the basic functions of the digestive system and can be used in the form of natural complexes, on the basis of which a number of preparations have been created: "Plantaglucid" from the leaves of the plantain, including low molecular weight pectins; "Laminarid" from seaweed as a laxative; beet pectin, included in the complex antiulcer drug "Flakarbin".

Polysaccharide preparations of chamomile and tansy inflorescences have been proposed as promising antiulcer drugs. Polysaccharides from the stems of the stock-rose species in terms of antiulcer activity in the experiment exceed the effect of the drug "Plantaglucid".

Pectins, due to their acidic nature, exhibit antimicrobial action against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

Pectins improve digestion, reduce putrefaction in the intestines and remove toxic metabolic products formed in the body itself; promote the production of B vitamins in the intestine, especially B12, the vital activity and growth of beneficial bacteria in the intestine, and the elimination of excess cholesterol. Pectin substances are widely used in the treatment of diarrhea. Apple pectin delays the multiplication of influenza A virus, reduces the effects of mercury and lead poisoning, and promotes the elimination of lead from bone tissue. At present, the apple diet, pectin and pectin substances are widely used abroad for the treatment of diarrhea and dysentery in children.

Pectins are used as a styptic. At present, the hemostatic properties of pectins are successfully used abroad for pulmonary hemorrhages, for bleeding from the esophagus, stomach and intestines, as well as for jaundice, liver cirrhosis, thrombophlebitis, gynecological diseases, in dentistry and hemophilia.

The most common pectin-containing raw materials are citrus fruits (pressed), apples (pomace), sugar beets (pulp), fodder watermelon, sunflower baskets, Jerusalem artichoke tubers and some other agricultural raw materials.

Fiber, mechanically acting on the nerve endings of the intestinal walls, stimulates its motor function, stimulates the secretion of digestive juices, imparts porosity to the food mass, providing more complete access to them for digestive juices, increases the biological value of food, normalizes the vital activity of beneficial intestinal microbes, promotes excretion from the body toxic products of exo - and endogenous origin. And thus, it contributes to the prevention and treatment of liver diseases, hypertension, atherosclerosis, normalization of the intestinal bacterial flora, stimulates the synthesis of B vitamins, especially B2, and vitamin K.

High-fiber foods include asparagus, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, celery, courgettes, cucumbers, garlic, green beans, green peppers, and lettuce. Leeks, mushrooms, peas, spinach, sprouted seeds, tomatoes. Fruits are also a great source of fiber, but they are high in sugar (fructose).

Currently, more than 20 higher plants are known containing immunostimulating polysaccharides. Among them angelica acute-lobed, eleutherococcus prickly, ginseng, calendula, dye safflower, chamomile, purpurea echinacea, stethosis. goldenrod, white mistletoe, yellow basil, tall mullein, sowing rice, bamboo, stinging nettle, Japanese sophora, American phytolacca, Umbelliferous centaury, sorrel, clover, yucca, Cretan bluehead, Siberian larch, common burdock, autumn fall species roses, marshmallows, etc.

Immunostimulating, including antitumor, activity is due to the activation of macrophages and killer cells, increased production of interferon, increased phagocytosis, increased antibody production, increased levels of immunoglobulins, and a strong anti-inflammatory effect.

Polysaccharides increase the body's defenses against infection, especially viral, primarily for all influenza infections. At the present time, the possibility of using plant polysaccharides as pharmacosanitizing agents has been shown to increase the body's resistance.

The antihypoxic activity of water-soluble polysaccharides and pectin substances from tall mullein, common chicory, mistletoe, ginseng, American phytolacca, and firmiana simple was proved. Mistletoe polysaccharides have a pronounced radioprotective effect when exposed to g-radiation.

Under the influence of polysaccharides of common chicory and mullein high in the blood serum, the level of total cholesterol normalized, the content of alkaline phosphatase decreased, which indicates that they have a pronounced hepatoprotective effect comparable to that of Silibor. These compounds have a pronounced choleretic activity. A similar effect was found in burdock and dandelion polysaccharides. Thus, the established versatile pharmacological activity of polysaccharides allows us to consider them as a possible source of new drugs.

4. Plants containing polysaccharides

4.1 Plants containing gums

Astragalus woolly (Astragalus dasyanthus) of the legume family (Leguminosae).

Botanical description. Loosely branched shrub up to 16-40 cm high, with reddish-shaggy branches. Leaves are compound, consisting of 12-14 pairs of lanceolate or lanceolate-oblong leaflets. Inflorescence - dense capitate racemes of 10-20 flowers. The fruit is a hairy, oval pod 10-11mm long. Blossoming time May-July.

Spread. It grows wild in the steppe part of the Dnieper region, the Volga-Don basin and the Black Sea region. It also grows in the steppe and forest-steppe zones of Russia - Voronezh, Kursk, Volgograd region, Stavropol region, Ukraine and Moldova. Prefers areas with preserved steppe vegetation. It grows in open places, in the steppe, on mounds and old cemeteries, in glades and forest edges. It is not picky about moisture, does not withstand moisture and shading.

Procurement and storage. The aerial part is used - astragalus herb. The grass is cut in the flowering phase at a height of 5-7 cm from the ground. The raw material for Astragalus woolly-flowered in nature should be reduced as much as possible, since the plant is included in the Red Book.

Drying produced quickly in attics or in well-ventilated sheds, under awnings, the grass is laid out in a layer of 3-5 cm on paper or cloth, often turning it over. Drying is continued for 5-7 days.

Raw materials represents straight stems, densely leafy, reddish-shaggy, with pinnate leaves up to 20 cm long. Leaves consist of 11-17 pairs of oblong-oval silky pubescent leaves. The flowers are densely pubescent, with a yellow corolla, moth-like structure, collected 10-20 in a dense rounded raceme.

Finished raw materials are packed in bales or bags. Astragalus raw materials can also be dried in dryers at a temperature of 40 - 60 ° C. They are stored packed in dry, well-ventilated rooms on racks or on podtovoy. Shelf life is 1.5 years.

Chemical composition... Astragalus woolly contains gum (tragacanth), which is obtained from natural cracks and cuts in the trunk. The composition of the gum includes: 60% bassorin and 3-10% arabin, which are polysaccharides. Also contains starch, sugars, mucous substances, dyes, organic acids.

Pharmacological properties... The pharmacological study of Astragalus was first carried out by E.V. Popova, who showed that the infusion of the plant has sedative and hypotensive properties. Along with this, astragalus expands the coronary vessels and kidney vessels, increases diuresis.

Application. The most effective use of astragalus woolly-flowered in case of circulatory failure of I-II degrees and in the treatment of acute nephritis. It is also used for hypertension and chronic cardiovascular failure.

Preparations. Infusion of astragalus herb. 10 g of grass (2 tablespoons) is placed in an enamel bowl, pour 200 ml (1 glass) of hot boiled water, heated in a boiling water bath for 15 minutes, cooled for about 45 minutes, filtered, topped up with boiled water to the initial volume - 200 ml. Take 2 - 3 tablespoons 2 - 3 times a day. Store no more than 2 days in a cool place

4.2 Plants containing mucus

Marshmallow (Althaea officinalis) of the Malvaceae family (Malvaceae).

Botanical description. A perennial velvety-silky herb 1-1.5 m high with a short, thick, many-headed rhizome and branched roots. The leaves are alternate, lobed, serrated along the edge. The flowers are pale pink, large, in a racemose-paniculate inflorescence. Fractional fruit of 15-25 fruits. Seeds are reniform, dark brown, 2-2.5 mm long. Blooms and bears fruit in July-August.

Spread. Althea officinalis is found in the middle and southern zones of the European part of Russia, in the Caucasus, throughout Ukraine and a little in Central Asia. Usually grows in damp places, in river floodplains, among bushes.

Procurement and storage... The medicinal raw material is marshmallow root. The roots are harvested in spring or autumn, and the plant must be less than 2 years old. The roots are quickly washed in running cold water so that there is no mucus secretion, and cut into pieces. The roots are stripped of the cork layer to obtain a peeled root. The root is dried immediately after harvest: first, it is dried in the sun for three days, and then dried in special dryers at a temperature of about 40 ° C. If the roots have been dried properly, they retain their whitish color and do not darken. Less commonly, flowers and leaves are harvested.

Finished raw materials can be cleaned and not cleaned from the cork layer, but they must necessarily retain their light color. A dry root should dust when breaking, and when water gets on it, mucus should appear on the root. The smell of marshmallow root is weak, it can taste sweet and slimy.

Keep marshmallow roots should be kept in a well-ventilated area, since the roots can become damp and moldy when wet. In pharmacies, the root is stored in closed boxes, the powder from the root is stored in glass jars. In warehouses, it can be stored in bags of 50 or 25 kg. When stored properly, marshmallow root can be useful for medicinal purposes for three years.

Chemical composition... Dry marshmallow roots contain mucus (35%), starch (37%), asparagine, sugars, fatty oil, carotene and minerals. The leaves and branches contain a small amount of essential solid oil.

Pharmacological properties. Marshmallow has an anti-inflammatory, expectorant or enveloping effect. Marshmallow roots contain a large amount of polysaccharides, so they have the property of swelling in aqueous infusions and covering the skin and mucous membranes with a thin layer. This layer protects the skin and mucous membranes from harmful factors such as drying out, cold or dry air, etc.

Altay has been known since ancient times. It was used already in the 7th century. BC. Then he was known under the name "alcei", which is translated from Greek as "healing"

Application. Marshmallow roots are widely used in medical practice around the world. In a number of countries, leaves and flowers are used. Altai root is used internally for respiratory diseases: bronchitis, tracheitis. The root is also used in diseases of the gastrointestinal tract: gastric ulcer and duodenal ulcer, gastritis, colitis. It also acts as a fixative for diarrhea.

Externally used in collections as an anti-inflammatory and emollient in the form of poultices, in the form of gargling, etc.

Preparations. Infusion of marshmallow root. Finely chopped root in an amount of 6 grams is poured with 100 ml of water, infused for about 1 hour. The finished infusion should be transparent, yellowish in color. It should taste sweet, slimy; has a faint peculiar smell. Take an infusion of 1 tbsp. l. after 2 hours

A cold infusion of marshmallow roots is prepared as follows: a tablespoon of chopped roots, pour cold boiled water for an hour, filter through cheesecloth, add sugar or honey for sweetness. Take every 2 hours a tablespoon 3-4 times a day before meals. They drink such an infusion, in particular, for eczema and psoriasis.

4.3 Plants containing pectin substances

Pectins are rich in the fruits of cranberries, black currants, apple trees, hawthorns, black chokeberries, mountain ash, barberry, plum, gooseberry,

Chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) of the Rosaceae family.

Botanical description. Deciduous shrub up to 1.5-2.5m high. leaves are simple, whole, serrate, obovate, alternate. The root system is powerful, superficial, fibrous, consists of vertically and horizontally located roots. Flowers of the quintuple type, white or pink in corymbose inflorescences. Apple-shaped fruits with a diameter of 8-10 cm, black with a bluish bloom. The skin of the fruit is dense, the flesh is almost black when ripe, fresh juice of a dark ruby \u200b\u200bcolor, strongly coloring. Seeds are dark brown, wrinkled, 2mm long. Aronia is a self-pollinated plant, almost not susceptible to disease. Blossoms in May, bears fruit in September.

Spread. Aronia is grown in various regions of the country as a valuable fruit and ornamental shrub. Homeland of chokeberry - forest areas USA. Due to its unpretentiousness and winter hardiness, it is introduced in almost all ecological and geographical regions of the former CIS, even in those where the cultivation of other fruit and berry crops is difficult.

Aronia gives stable yields in the northern regions of the European part of the CIS, in the harsh conditions of Western and Eastern Siberia, Eastern Kazakhstan and the Urals. The costs of creating industrial plantations of chokeberry in different farms of the country quickly pay off. Chokeberry is propagated by seeds, vertical and horizontal layering, dividing the bush, root shoots, green cuttings and grafting.

Procurement and storage... Ripe fruits are used. Their taste is pleasant, sour-sweet, tart. Aronia is characterized by a number of valuable traits: annual good fruiting, early onset of fruiting, a long productive period, retention of fruits after ripening on bushes until frost, good winter hardiness, low soil requirements, responsiveness to fertilizers, good reproductive ability. The fruits acquire the best taste in September.

Aronia is an extremely light-loving culture. With a dense arrangement of bushes or a strong thickening of the bush and in the absence of pruning, the yield of chokeberry fruits sharply decreases. Fruits are found mainly on well-lit peripheral branches. Collect the fruits of chokeberry in one step in a container with a capacity of 10 - 12 kg. Amateur gardeners get up to 15 - 30 kg of chokeberry fruit from individual bushes.

Chokeberry fruits must comply with Pharmacopoeia Monograph FS 42-66-72 "Fresh chokeberry fruit (chokeberry) and technical specifications TU 64-4-27-80" Dry chokeberry fruit (chokeberry). Chokeberry fruits should be clean, fresh, with a moisture content of 70 - 83%; unripe fruits not more than 2%; leaves and stem parts no more than 0.5%; fruit damaged by pests not more than 0.5%; mineral impurities no more than 0.5%; P-vitamin substances not less than 1.5%.

Fresh fruits are transported in fruit and vegetable boxes weighing up to 40 kg in refrigerators or in ordinary wagons and cars, if the journey does not exceed 3 days. At collection points, fruits are stored no more than 3 days from the date of collection. Shelf life at a temperature not exceeding 5 ° C up to 2 months.

In recent years, for the convenience of transportation and storage, chokeberry fruits have been dried. Dried fruits must contain at least 25% of extractives extracted with 20% alcohol; moisture no more than 18%. The presence of mold and rot, as well as persistent foreign odors are not allowed. In the delivered batch, the content of unformed, immature and damaged fruits by pests is allowed not more than 5%; leaves and stem parts no more than 5%; mineral impurity no more than 0.5%. The shelf life of dry fruits is no more than 2 years.

Chemical composition. In the fruits of chokeberry, a lot of vitamin P, ascorbic acid, sugar (up to 9.5%), as well as organic acids, carotene, and a lot of iodine are found. Discovered flavonoids, antacyans. In terms of acid content, the fruits of chokeberry are significantly superior to tangerines, strawberries, raspberries, and red currants. It contains more vitamin P than other types of mountain ash.

Plucked rowan fruits do not deteriorate for a long time, since they contain substances that suppress the reproduction of microbes. Chokeberry fruits contain sugar (up to 10%), malic and other organic acids (up to 1.3%), pectins (up to 0.75%) and tannins (up to 0.6%). Amygdalin, coumarin and other compounds are also found in the pulp of the fruit. Of the trace elements, iron - 1.2 mg, manganese - 0.5 and iodine - 5 - 8 mg per 100 g of fruit pulp are especially distinguished.

Pharmacological properties. Chokeberry fruits help to lower blood pressure, are a good prophylactic and therapeutic agent for hypertension, in addition, they strengthen the walls of blood vessels. Organic compounds of iodine, which are in sufficient quantities in chokeberry, remove excess cholesterol from the body, have a beneficial effect on the function of the thyroid gland. Due to the large number of substances with P-vitamin activity and the presence of vitamin K, chokeberry helps to normalize blood clotting, which is important in the treatment of a number of diseases.

Application. In recent years, the fruits of chokeberry began to be used for treatment (in the form of an extract and infusion), they are prescribed for hypertension and iodine deficiency. Chokeberry juice is used in the initial stage of hypertension, with bleeding of various origins, with atherosclerosis, anacid gastritis. Chokeberry fruits are taken for hypertension, hepatitis, allergies, and poisoning.

Preparations. Chokeberry juice. Fresh natural chokeberry juice is obtained from the pulp by pressing the fruit. It has a burgundy color and a sour-bitter astringent taste. The juice is prescribed at 50 g per reception 3 times a day half an hour before meals.

A decoction of chokeberry fruits. 1 tablespoon of dried berries pour 1.5 cups of boiling water, insist (daily dose). Take the broth during the day 3 times a day before meals.

4.4 Plants containing starch

Potato (Solanum tuberosum) of the Solanaceae family.

Botanical description. An annual herbaceous, bushy plant with underground shoots forming tubers. Stems are faceted with intermittently perforated leaves. The flowers are white, purple, 2-4 cm in diameter, with a wheel-like corolla. The inflorescence consists of 2-3 curls. The fruit is a spherical polyspermous berry. Seeds are yellow, very small. The color of the tubers is different: red, white, purple.

Spread. Common potatoes are native to South America. Introduced to Europe in the 16th century. Initially, it was cultivated as an ornamental plant, and from the end of the 17th century. - as food. Currently, many varieties of potatoes are cultivated, differing in the economic and nutritional qualities of the tubers.

Procurement and storage. Tubers and flowers are used as medicinal raw materials. Tubers are dug up in autumn, stored in special storages, in piles, pits, trenches at a temperature of + 2 ° C with fluctuations from 1 to 3 ° C, with an air humidity of 90%.

Chemical composition. Coumarin and paracumaric acid were found in potato fruits, flavonoids were found in inflorescences, and phenolic acids were found in the skin of tubers. The tubers contain proteins and carbohydrates (20-40% starch), pectins, saccharides, fiber, almost all B vitamins, as well as vitamins C, P, K, PP and A, mineral salts (especially potassium and phosphorus), macro - and trace elements, organic acids and sterols. Potato sprouts and leaves contain six different glycoalkaloids instead of one solanine as previously thought. Solanine is a crystalline substance of bitter taste, poorly soluble in water, but soluble in alcohols.

Pharmacological properties. In recent decades, chemists and doctors have been paying more and more attention to potatoes due to the fact that in various plant organs, especially in the peel of tubers, flowers, leaves and stems of the tops, a high content of several glucoalkaloids has been revealed, the main of which are solanine and chaconin.

In large doses, these substances, which are close in chemical structure to cardiac glycosides of lily of the valley and foxglove, cause severe poisoning even in large animals, expressed in stunning, the appearance of a shaky gait, dilated pupils, damage to the gastrointestinal tract, impaired respiration, cardiac activity and general circulation ... However, in moderate doses prescribed by a doctor, solanine is used as a remedy. It causes a persistent and long-term decrease in blood pressure, increases the amplitude, makes the heart rate less frequent, has a pronounced anti-inflammatory, analgesic and anti-allergic effect, has a positive effect on the course and outcome of burn shock and a number of other diseases.

Application. In medicine, the juice of fresh potatoes (especially pink) is used as an anti-acid agent for gastritis with increased secretory activity, peptic ulcer disease and constipation. Take it in 100-150 ml 20 minutes before meals. The juice moderately stimulates the cardiovascular system. They rinse the mouth and pharynx in case of inflammatory processes. Gruel of grated potatoes treat burns, panaritiums and non-healing wounds. This not only reduces pain and inflammation, but also improves the processes of cleansing and healing wounds. Inhalations are carried out with boiled potatoes, warming compresses are made.

In folk medicine, flower decoction is used to lower blood pressure and stimulate respiration, which is associated with the presence of solanine in them.

4.5 Plants containing inulin

Inulin is a naturally occurring polysaccharide obtained from the tubers and roots of certain plants. Most of all inulin contains Jerusalem artichoke, a lot of it in chicory, garlic, dandelions and in the now fashionable echinacea.

Common chicory (Cichorium intubus) of the Asteraceae family (Compositae)/

Botanical description... A perennial herb with a well-developed tap root, often branched root and an erect, rough, ribbed stem with protruding branches. Basal leaves, notched-pinnate, with a colored main vein, collected in a socket. Stem leaves are lanceolate, sharp-toothed, stem-embracing. Flower baskets are beautiful, blue, and consist of reed flowers. The fruit is a three-pentahedral achene with a short filmy crown. Chicory blooms from late June to September.

Spread. It is widely distributed in the middle zone and in the south of the European part of the CIS, in the Caucasus and Central Asia, grows in wastelands, ditches, along roads, near crops as a weed.

Procurement and storage... Chicory roots are harvested in autumn - in September, October. Inflorescences - during the flowering of the plant.

Chemical composition... The roots contain proteins, alkaloids, inulin polysaccharide, intibin glycoside, sucrose, pentosans, B vitamins, bitterness, pectin, and resins. Flowers - chicoriin glycoside, leaves - inulin, milky juice - bitterness.

Pharmacological properties. According to experimental data, the infusion of wild-growing chicory flowers has a calming effect, tones up the heart, and has choleretic activity. Chicory enhances urination and bile formation, the work of the digestive glands, regulates metabolism, has antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and astringent properties. In folk medicine, it is used in the form of an aqueous infusion and liquid extract for diabetes mellitus.

Application ... Chicory is one of the most used sources of inulin. Even the ancient Egyptians use chicory for food. Chicory won the greatest recognition in the treatment of diseases of the gastrointestinal tract and liver. The plant is used as a gastric, choleretic, laxative and is used to treat diseases of the liver, spleen, kidneys, skin diseases. Decoctions of roots and inflorescences have a bactericidal and astringent effect.

In folk medicine, chicory has long been used to treat diseases of the stomach, intestines, liver, with inflammation of the bladder and difficulty urinating, anemia, spleen tumors, hemoptysis, general weakness, as a blood purifier for skin diseases and soothing for hysteria. A decoction of seeds was used as an antipyretic, diaphoretic and analgesic agent. Infusion of flowers - with increased excitability and pain in the heart. Chicory juice is recommended for anemia, general weakness, malaria.

Baths from a decoction of herbs are considered effective for scrofula, diathesis, various joint lesions, a poultice of grass - for abscesses. Grass ash mixed with sour cream was rubbed into the areas of the skin affected by eczema.

Preparations. Infusion of the whole chicory plant. Brew 1 liter of boiling water 40 g of the plant, insist in a warm place for 3 hours, strain. Drink 0.5 cups 3 times a day to remove excess bile with jaundice, with cirrhosis of the liver, for cleansing the liver and spleen, with spleen tumors, stomach clogging, pain in the gastrointestinal tract. In case of stomach poisoning, take 1 glass daily for 3-4 days before breakfast and in the evening.

Chicory herb decoction. Brew with 1 cup boiling water 1 tbsp. l. chopped dry or fresh herbs, heat on low heat for 10 minutes, leave for 15 minutes, strain. Drink like tea for diarrhea. Outwardly, the broth is used in the form of lotions, washings, baths for the treatment of skin rashes, acne, boils, purulent wounds, pustular skin diseases, eczema, diathesis in children. Decoction of chicory root. Brew with 1 cup boiling water 1 tbsp. l. root, heat on low heat for 20 minutes, drain. Drink 1 tbsp. l 5-6 times a day or without dosage as tea.

Conclusion:

At present, interest in polysaccharides has increased significantly. If earlier polysaccharides were mainly used as auxiliary substances in the production of various dosage forms, then in recent years they are mostly considered as biologically active substances. In the technology of medicines, polysaccharides of natural and synthetic origin are used mainly as shapers, thickeners and stabilizers in ointments and liniment.

Medicinal plants and phytoextracts containing polysaccharides are used as medicinal and prophylactic agents. The use of medicinal herbs in traditional medicine is now especially important. Plants have many advantages over chemical medications. The main advantages of their use are the absence of side effects and a complex effect on the body. The problem of human health is considered the most urgent problem of modern medicine, therefore phytopreparations play an important role in the protection, as well as improvement and strengthening of the health of millions of people.

Currently, drugs based on polysaccharides obtained from higher (pectins) and lower plants (alginates, carrageenans), secondary raw materials of animal origin (chitosan), mushrooms (christening), etc. have found wide application in medicine. Polysaccharides have a wide variety of effects on the body human. In recent years, in many laboratories around the world, very valuable polysaccharides have begun to be isolated from the composition of various plants, which have antidote, wound healing, immunostimulating, restorative, antimicrobial, and antitumor properties. Scientists different countries the world works tirelessly in this direction, revealing the deeply hidden secrets of the plant world.

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5. Kurkin V.A. Pharmacognosy. - Samara: OOO "Etching", GOUVPO SamGMU, 2004.

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