How to highlight the verbal participle in speech? The easiest way is to ask the appropriate question. The article contains grammatical signs of gerunds, their features, syntactic role in sentences with illustrative examples.

Gerunds- an independent part of speech (in some textbooks - a special form of the verb), which answers questions - What are you doing? Having done what? Formed from the stem of the verb using suffixes -a / i, -v / -lice / -shi.

The use of participles examples: painting pictures, sittingon the chair, having gatheredhome, decorating tree, having boughtapples.

What does the verbal participle mean in speech?

In speech, gerunds denote an additional action, at the same time characterizing the main one (expressed by a verb in a personal form or an infinitive).

In fact, the gerunds combine the meanings of verbs and participles:

• Indicates an action;
• They call the sign of the action (how it is done).

Examples: stopping, the man greeted - the man (what did he do?) stopped and greeted, greeted (how?) stopping; readingbooks, we learn - we (what are we doing?) read and learn, we learn (how?) reading.

Grammatical signs of gerunds

The gerunds combine the grammatical features of verbs and adverbs.

Signs of verbs:

• View - perfect (done, folded) or imperfect (doing, folding);
• Transitivity (watching a movie, remembering the road) and intransition (walking down the street, jumping from a tree);
• Returnability (bathing, dressing) and irrevocability (bathing, putting on).

Signs of adverbs:

• Immutability (do not bend or conjugate);
• In phrases, usually, like adverbs, they adjoin the personal forms of verbs, less often - to infinitives or participles (he speaks while laughing; think while working)

The syntactic role of gerunds

In sentences, the gerunds depend on the verb that plays the role of the predicate. Typically, the participle is a minor member of the sentence - it plays the syntactic role of the circumstance.

TOP-5 articleswho read along with this

Examples: Going overstreet, look around. Taking away in the room, I washed the floors. Leafing through dictionary, I found what this word means.

Note! The gerunds are often confused with verbal participles, which are definitions in a sentence (Mom threw out (which?) witheredflowers).

O.S. Bikkulova, 2011

From the base of the past tense - using suffixes -in / -lice (-shi when based on a consonant), example (2);

From the stem of the present tense - using suffixes -and (spelling option -I), examples (1), (3), (4); (outdated) teach (-yuchi), example (5).

(1) Entering into the apartment, I found my friend lying on the couch. [M. A. Bulgakov. Theatrical novel (1936-1937)]

(2) Drunk tea and rested, we drove on. [IN. A. Obruchev. In the Wilds of Central Asia (1951)]

(3) Going down, like the donkey, I walked sideways, exposing forward right leg and slowing down left if the right one slipped. [F. Iskander. The first thing (1956)]

(4) She laughed out loud, throwing back a beautiful little head. [IN. Shukshin. Lyonka (1960-1971)]

(5) Thus, being As a seven-year-old boy, I was painting with the artist Nodier, a student of the famous Degas. [AND. L. Chizhevsky. All life (1959-1961)]

In Russian studies, the verbal participle is usually defined as a “secondary predicate” [Shakhmatov 1941 (2001)], “predicate subordinate” [Shakhmatov 2001 (1941)], “additional action” [Gvozdev 1973], “secondary action” [Isachenko 1954 (2003)] , [Kolesov 2008], [Kozintseva 1990]. This terminology emphasizes the functional similarity of the participle and subordinate clauses in the complex subordinate.

1. Vernacular: general information

1.1. The syntactic structure of a sentence with a participle

The verbal participle can be used alone ( reading lying), or may have dependent words, i.e. to form the so-called. participial turnover (reading lying in bed).

In the main clause “ support form»(A term from [Nedyalkov, Otaina 1987: 299]), the final form of the verb (examples (1) - (5)) or the infinitive (6) is usually used for the gerunds:

(6) There is more right than right send without hesitation, to death, - right ponder by sending to death. [IN. Grossman. Life and Fate (1960)]

However, there are other variants of the support form, for example, some named predicates that have a state value:

(7) Entering to the office of the People's Commissar, Stalin was calm and confident... [AND. Chakovsky. Blockade (1968)]

(8) “This is good,” I thought, “ being per night, she will be tired". [IN. Zapashny. Risk. Wrestling. Love (1998-2004)]

The basic form in examples (7) and (8) is the analytical form with a short (7) or full (8) adjective. The possibility of using the gerunds with these predicates is due to the fact that they express a sign that changes over time. Wed a more controversial example:

(9)? The people are here was economical consideringthat their own forces are a cheap item and their only surplus of what they give to the state. [F. Gorenstein. Heap (1982)]

This example seems to be controversial from the point of view of the modern norm, since The verbal participle standardly enters into temporal relations with the main predicate (precedence / simultaneity, see more details), and in this case the predicate has the semantics of a feature that does not change in time, and the simultaneity / non-simultaneity relationship cannot be established. The argument in favor of such an explanation is the non-normality of examples like (7) and (8) when the verb is omitted be: ? Entering the office, Stalin is calm and confident (only as a slow motion effect in movies or with a habitual interpretation - Every time he enters the office, he is calm and confident.); ? staying overnight she is tired... In the verb be contains grammatical information, and, in particular, it is defined by the category of tense: analytical form with verb be has a time limit and enters into a temporary relationship with the gerunds, and the form without a bunch has the semantics of a feature or property that is not limited in time, and therefore it is not combined with a gerunds (see about the temporal relationships of predicates).

In AG-80, an example is given in which the active participle serves as the reference form of the gerunds:

(10) Chauffeur, screwing tank, squatting, got up, awkwardly dropping his hands at his seams. (K. Simonov, cited from [Grammar 1980: §2107])

However, similar usages in the Corpus and on the Internet through search engines was not found, the only exceptions are poetic texts (about the gerunds in poetry, see clause 8.2). This use of the adverbial participle is extremely rare, and the adverbial itself squatting, despite the presence of dependent members in the gerunds, it approaches adverbs and prepositional groups according to the meaning "in a certain position": Chauffeur screwing the tank on the side / reclining… (For more details on such cases, see). Therefore, it is difficult to state the possibility of using a real participle as a supporting form of a participle.

Thus, finite forms, infinitives and nominal predicates with the meaning of a temporary state can be the basic form of the gerunds.

An important structural feature of sentences with gerunds is the fixation of the subject common to both predicates in the main clause. In the texts of the XVIII - early XIX centuries. the subject is found both in the main clause and within the dependent (cf. example from the grammar of M. V. Lomonosov [Lomonosov 1757 (1952)]: writing i letter, I'm sending overseas). In modern Russian, the subject cannot be inside the dependent clause, however, there can be units inside it that are coreferent to the subject of the main clause. They were noted in their works by VM Savin [Savina 1989] and Ya. G. Testelets [Testelets 2001]. In the Russian language, there are such pronominal and quantitative determinants such as whole, myself, each, both, one, first (very limited group). They can be included in the adverbial turnover, but at the same time agree with the subject. In this case, they “act, as it were, as its authorized representatives” [Savina 1989: 103]. Ya. G. Testelets uses the term "floating quantifiers" for them and notes that they can be in adverbial, infinitive and other syntactic turns:

(11) Old man <м.р., ед.ч.> whispered while talking myself <м.р., ед.ч.> with you: - What a ridiculous, meaningless world! [YU. Trifonov. House on the Embankment (1976)]

(12) Straight lines have been stripped all the way lightning <ж.р.>, each <ж.р.> pointing only their way: they, too, rushed, already under their feet. [ABOUT. Pavlov. Karaganda Nines, or Tale last days (2001)]

1.2. German participles in the system of verbal forms, categories of the verb in gerunds (from the point of view of morphology)

The gerunds in Russian grammar are qualified either as a special form of the verb ([Isachenko 1954 (2003)], [Lekant, Markilova et al. 1999]), or as a hybrid form ([Peshkovsky 1956], [Vinogradov 1947 (1986)], school grammar [Razumovskaya 2001]) - connecting the signs of a verb and an adverb. Morphologically and syntactically, the verbal participle is close to the adverb: the verbal participle is morphologically unchangeable, refers to the predicate in the main clause and expresses the adverbial meaning. For the obvious cases of the transition of frozen adverbial forms to the class of adverbs, see section 6.1. Verbal participle and adverb.

Semantically, the adverb remains within the framework of the verb: it retains the meaning of the action (and other verb meanings), the control in the phrase, characteristic of the original verb, and some verb categories.

Like all other forms of the verb, in the Russian literary language the gerunds retain the distinction between reflexive and non-reflexive forms, between reflexive and non-reflexive verbs with the help of the postfix - xia: returning – returning – returning; finding – being; creating – creating; whitening – whitening(see Returns). On the expansion of the zone of irreversibility in the gerunds beyond the literary norm, see Art.

The categories (both lexical-grammatical and grammatical), which have a participle, are usually expressed within the framework of the verb stem: readj-ut – readj-a (НСВ), read – read-in (CB); creating (Act.) - creating(pass.).

We accept the point of view according to which the verbal participle has the forms of a passive voice (see. Pledge) - both analytical and synthetic - which is generally unconventional. So, in [Isachenko 1954] and [Grammar 1980] the category of the pledge of the gerunds is not considered, and the forms that we include in the category of pledge are usually considered not at the level of morphology.

The analytical form of the passive voice is based on the form being and a short or full passive participle:

(13) Thus, these items, not being physically relocatable across national borders, over time found themselves in a different society. [L. Shpakovskaya. Old things. Value: Between State and Society (2004)]

(14) But the investigator was sure that Berlioz threw himself under the tram (or fell under it), being hypnotized... [M. A. Bulgakov. The Master and Margarita (1929-1940)]

The synthetic form of the passive voice is the reflexive form (usually from creation verbs):

(15) By creating specifically for specific purposes, for specific customers, an exclusive interior is its face, the thing that new partners and customers pay attention to first of all. (Internet resource)

(16) Maybe the point is that exactly New Year, under construction on traditions, gives us a sense of confidence, and a reckless sense of a fairy tale. (Internet resource)

However, it is usually difficult to comprehend the return form in a passive sense, cf. reflexive participle from the processing verb:

(17) The color of men's jeans starts in black and dark blue for a business look or a more ascetic one, without bright accents. brightening and " rubbing"For a more youthful and free style ... (Internet resource)

For the relationship between the lexical semantics of the stem and the passive / non-passive meaning of a reflexive verb, see [Nikitina 2008].

In some concepts, the point of view is adopted, according to which we can talk about the syntactic categories of mood, time and face in the gerunds [Zolotova et al. 1998 (2004)]. There are no morphemic indicators of these categories in the form itself, but the values \u200b\u200bare based on the values \u200b\u200bof the corresponding categories of the reference form (modality and face coincide, tense either coincides or is counted from the tense of the main verb), and therefore they are discussed in connection with the taxis category (see).

1.3. History of participles

SECTION IN PROGRESS (09.2016)

1.4. Verbal participle in dialects and vernacular and their reflection in the literary language

Unlike the literary language, in dialects and vernacular the adverbial form is used in the predicative function. Predicative gerunds are formed from transitive and intransitive verbs of the perfect (less often imperfect) form using suffixes - lice/-mousy/-shi, the forms of the past and future tense are made out using i inauxiliary verb be... Predicative participles convey two main meanings - 1) the value of the resulting state of the subject (examples (19), (20), (21), (23), (24)) and 2) the value of the resulting state of the object (example (22)). In this way, valid and passive (see. Pledge) meanings do not differ grammatically.

In common parlance, the range of predicative gerunds is limited mainly to lexicalized forms (not) emshi / have eaten, pimshi / drank, spam / sleeping, have a drink / having drunk:

(18) - You are drunk! - Yes I have a drink! - did not open the driver. [E. Ryazanov, E. Braginsky. Quiet Whirlpools (1998)] (reflection of vernacular in literary text)

Predicative participles are widespread in western Central Russian dialects and in the western part of Northern Russian dialects, but they are also found in other dialects.

(19) We got the dishwasher / and I got married was released... [Vikhrova's story about school and work. Novgorod region (2003)]

(20) And I said, if he does, then I will put on a raincoat, and if not, then I i will undress... [AND. M. Verbina. Childhood, youth, marriage. from. Mazepovka, Rylsky district, Kursk region (2000)]

(21) We guess we go to bed. One leg wears one shoes... Well, let's make a dream. [Wart's story about work. Bryansk region (1985)]

(22) Grandfather and grandmother die, and from my son leaving Yihna's daughter-in-law lives in a noble house, bought this house from my grandfather, four families live there. [Family. Work. Novgorod region (1967)]

The predicative use of the adverbial form, along with passive constructions in - but / -then (the flour is bought, several houses are pogoret, she is already dressed), allows us to talk about the appearance of the category of perfect in the Western Central Russian and North Russian dialects, that is, about the formation of grammatical means in them, specifically designed to express the meaning of the resulting state.

It should be noted that dialects contain (albeit extremely rare) forms in - shi/-mousy/-lice in the function of a "secondary predicate", i.e. used "unpredictably", like gerunds in literary Russian:

(23) I was looking for her for two weeks, this cow is my own, I was exhausted, iskamshi her. [Cow. the village of Seitovo, Kasimovsky district, Ryazan region (1996)]

2. Shaping

The adverbial forms are formed from both stems of the verb using suffixes: -a (i), -v / -lice / -shi, -uchi (yuchi)... The choice of suffix depends on:

(1) grammatical characteristics of the verb (type and recurrence);

(2) stem morphonology (final stem sound, stress, number of syllables).

2.1. Choice of adverbial suffix

First of all, suffixes are attached to the bases of the imperfect form -а (-ya) / - uchi (yuchi), and to the bases of the perfect form - the suffixes -v / -lice / -shi (knowing / knowing / recognizing). This is confirmed by the Corps data. Wed results for the Subcorpus for the period from 1990 to 2010 (74 148 796 words).

Table 1. Formation of gerunds from verbs НСВ vs. SV

	imperfect species	perfect view
-а / -сь	10 537/782 (breathing, screaming, learning)	14/36 (hearing, supposing, deciding, abandoning)
-ya / -ya	194 916/58974 (knowing, reading, fearing)	8 324/1154 (coming, driving, getting together)
-in	90 (knowing, reading, playing)	94 436 (doing, catching, knowing)
-lice / -lice	109/38 (slurping, guessing, learning, trying)	660/33 277 (sleeping, refusing, achieving)
-shi	3 (mogshi)	178/514 (went out, flourished, dispersed)
-teach	3985 (being, going, going)
-yuchi / -yuchi	27/1 (looking, have, wait)

In the above table, the most numerous are the imperfect participles in -I and perfect participles on -in, the forms of the perfect type on - lice with a returnable suffix - sitsince form on - in is not formed from reflexive verbs, and the form in - lice is formed ( refuse – refusing, refuse – giving up).

Significant in terms of quantity are forms of an imperfect type on - and... Suffix - and connects with a small number of stems on consonants unpaired in hardness-softness (except - j), so it is less common than its graphical counterpart on - i... The group of perfect participles on - i formed from verbs ending in - ty: come, bring, bring and others. If before the beginning of the XX century as much as 20% of the use accounted for the suffix - shi (having come, brought, bring), then at the beginning of the XXI century only forms with the suffix - and I) (number of forms per - shi now account for less than 0.5% of the number of forms on -and I) - data from [Dobrushina 2009]).

Another significant group in terms of the number of occurrences is imperfective gerunds in - teach... Of 3985 occurrences, 3911 are for the verb beingwhich is the only normative verb in - teach [Zaliznyak 1977 (1980)]. The rest of the participles in - teach(yuchi), as noted in [Grammar 1980: §1590], have "colloquial and vernacular coloring", and are also used for stylization under folk speech or in poetic texts (see about the use of these forms in poetic texts). However, for example, the participle going occurs in the Subcorpus 1990 - 2010 as many as 25 times, including in stylistically neutral contexts:

(24) The whole tsimes is that, going hitchhiking, you don't pay a dime. ["Hooligan" (2004)]

This participle has the meaning ‘while driving’, ‘when driving’ - this meaning can only be expressed by the gerunds in - teachsince slightly artificial shape eating is a homograph of a verb participle there is (‘Eat’), participle traveling does not occur in the 1990 - 2010 Subcorpus even once, and expressing the same meaning with the help of a verbal noun or a separate predicative unit turns out to be inconvenient and, apparently, not economical from the point of view of using linguistic means. Thus, the participle going turns out to be a completely "living" form on a given linguistic cut.

In the remaining cells of the table, the result is measured in hundreds or tens. Perfective gerunds on - and and on - shi have more common analogs for - in or at -I(respectively): hearing – having heard, came out– going out.

For low-frequency forms, a significant percentage of uses are used in phraseological phrases ( hand on heart, unwashed).

Special attention should be paid to the forms of imperfective participles on -v / -lice (sm)... The presence of this form, despite its little use, allows us to talk about the relics of the category of time in gerunds. Some researchers ([Zaliznyak 1977 (1980)], [Miloslavsky 1981]) prefer to talk about the gerunds of two tenses, rather than two types, but the examples given below suggest that the category of tense in the gerunds does not replace the category of the species, but complements it. In some contexts, some imperfect participles (which have the standard meaning of simultaneity, see item 3) acquire the meaning of precedence, and these are just participles with suffixes -in / -lice:

(25) For all that, having long known many of his fictional opuses, reading "Russian Beauty" in the manuscriptI was pleasantly surprised at how well written his essay on the trip to the Ganges, which I came across in the late 90s in some newspaper. [N. Klimontovich. Further - everywhere (2001)]

(26) Being illiterate and never reading Platonov, he nevertheless did not offend him: after all, his brother the writer. [IN. Mikhalsky. Stories (1999)]

(27) Sleeping badlyOn December 4, 1980, two and a half years after coming to America, I arrived at St. Vincent's Hospital on Twelfth Street - an hour ahead of schedule. [IN. Golyakhovsky. Russian doctor in America (1984-2001)]

(28) I am the daughter of a great king, but an old sorcerer, trying to get my beauty in your bed- what a bastard! - bewitched me - and now ... I turn into a flower during the day, and at night I go out under the stars. - Nightmare, nightmare! [AND. Belyanin. Ferocious Landgrave (1999)]

(29) During the day, at night, you can call 269 41 there, not seeing a year, call: don't ask anything, I'll come to you now. [AND. Terekhov. Babaev (2003)]

(30) But even he got tired in the end, dragging the Redhead flat all over the Circle... [M. Semenov. Wolfhound: Sign of the Way (2003)]

(31) ... I heard it from my childhood, Soon I'll get old completely, But there's no getting away from the cry: "Jews, Jews!" Never trading, never stealing, I carry in me, like an infection, Cursed this race. (B. A. Slutsky About the Jews (1953?))

(32) She immediately recognized the poet, but he could not remember her, not having been home for many years... [YU. Petkevich. The appearance of an angel (2001)]

So, from the base of the imperfect kind to read two forms can be formed - reading and reading... The first has the semantics of the present tense - simultaneity of the action expressed by the support form, and the second, as these examples show, is interpreted in the meaning of precedence with the support form in the past tense (both contact, i.e. immediate precedence, and non-contact) or realizes the general factual meaning imperfect form in the reference form in the present tense (examples (29) and (31)). Both meanings are non-standard for the imperfective participle. As the Corpus data show, the presence or absence of a particle not does not affect.

2.2. Limitations on the formation of gerunds

Russian grammar (cf. [Grammar 1980: §1591]) indicates difficulties in the formation of gerunds in -and Irelated:

(1) with the attribution of the verb to a certain inflectional class;

(2) with a syllabic stem structure.

(1) Difficulty in the formation of gerunds:

• from the foundations of the present tense of the V inflectional class of verbs (hereinafter, the terminology [Grammar 1980]) with alternation (the appearance at the junction of the stem and the suffix of hissing or a combination of the labial with l '), for example, from the verbs lie, to knit, lower, lick, smear, plow, write, dance, cut, send, pour, hew, scratch;
• from the foundations of the present tense of verbs of the IV inflectional class to - well-, eg, fade, go out, get stuck, grumble, hang;
• from the stems of the present tense of verbs of the VI inflectional class with the stem of the present and past tense in -r and -to, eg, cherish, burn, lie down, be able, guard, attract, oven, flog, flow, crush and under.

(2) Formation of gerunds from the non-syllable stem of the present tense is difficult (see Verb bases), for example:

• from verbs I conjugation: lie, to wait, lie, to eat, to tear, to laugh, weave, die, shove, reap, crush, to whip, drink, to sew and some. others;
• from verbs II conjugation watch, mature, sleep.

Rarely form verb participles run away, climb, rot, get cold... In the Subcorpus 1990 - 2010, of the "difficult to form" forms, only some gerunds were found:

Table 2. Rare forms of gerunds

	N gerunds (Subcorpus 1990 - 2010)
lie	1 (breach)
lie	1 (in vain)
to wait	2 (waiting)
lie	1 (lying)
climb	1 (climbing)
lie down	3 (leggies)
smear	1 (smear)
be able	3 (mogshi)
write	2 (writing)
dance	1 (dancing)
cut	2 (cutting)
pour	1 (pour)
scratch	2 (scratching)

Gerunds from the rest of the above verbs into -and I for this period was not found.

3. Verbal participle and taxis

3.1. Verbal participle and taxis: general information

In Russian, the temporal relationship between the finite form and the gerunds is presented in two ways:

(1) the ratio of timing,

(2) the relation of simultaneity,

which is expressed by the species ratio of predicates:

• the difference in timing is expressed by the gerunds of the perfective verb:

(33) Returning from the reader's conference, Lena covered on the table ... [I. G. Ehrenburg. Thaw (1953-1955)] (\u003d ‘returned and then set the table’)

• simultaneity is expressed by the gerunds of the imperfective verb:

(34) So I walked, inhaling fresh air and pondering that the storm will strike again ... [M. A. Bulgakov. Theatrical novel (1936-1937)] (\u003d 'walked, breathed in air and thought at the same time')

The species ratio of verb forms in a linear sequence of speech (in the syntactic sequence of verb forms) received a terminological designation: R.O. Yakobson called the correlation in time of two or more syntagmatically related verb forms taxis [Jacobson 1957 (1972)]. At present, the taxis category is understood broader than R.O. Yakobson proposed. Taxis is a functional-semantic category that is “realized in bipropositive (and, more broadly, polypropositive) constructions, where temporal localization (simultaneity / non-simultaneity, precedence / succession) of one situation P1 relative to another situation P2 is marked with different grammatical means. , i.e. regardless of any other situation Pn ”[Khrakovsky 2009: 20].

R.O. Jacobson identified two types of taxis - independent (connection of two finite forms) and dependent (connection of one finite and one non-finite form). So, in the sentence:

(35) Titmouse scared, popped out from the nest and, clinging to claws for the frame, dropped in out the window. [IN. V. Bianchi. There were also forest stories (1923-1958)]

- finite forms express an independent taxis ( scared, popped out and dropped in), and the form of the participle is dependent ( clinging to, dropped in). The prototypical form of the dependent taxis in Russian is precisely the gerunds, since this form is unchangeable and has only one clearly distinguished grammatical category - the category of the species (for more details on the categories of the participle, see). Unlike finite forms and participles, which have a category of tense and can be related to the moment of speech, the gerunds are related only to the tense of the main verb, i.e. is an exclusively taxis form.

The canonical rule, as mentioned above, assumes that the imperfect participles denote the simultaneity of two actions, and the perfect gerunds denote the difference in timing. However, temporary relationships can actually be more complex.

A. A perfect adverbial participle can denote the simultaneity of the main action if this adverbial participle acts as a perfect in static, descriptive contexts:

(36) Man sat on a log, lean on hands on your knees. [IN. Shukshin. Stenka Razin (1960)]

This is a static image, in which the perfect verbal participle in combination with the imperfect form of the main predicate does not indicate the development of events in time.

B. Imperfective participle on -v / -lice / -shi denotes precedence (see examples in section 2.1). Such cases in modern texts are extremely rare, occur mainly in literary texts and seem archaic:

(37) Entering the casino and never played beforeon roulette, Archil held out the croupier his hundred marks ... [A. Tarasov. Millionaire (2004)]

In example (37), precedence is expressed not only by the choice of the form on - in, but also lexically ( before).

C. Perfective postpositive verbal participles can denote the simultaneity of two long-term situations:

(38) Former US President Bill Clinton somehow even made a voyage in Prague pubs, having tastedthere are many types of beer. [Whiskey, cognac and beer - alcohol addictions of Russian politicians (2008)]

Postpositive perfect participle having tasted expresses in this example a repeated action accompanying another action - a journey through prague beer.

D. The perfect participles in verbs of interpretive semantics do not denote a difference in timing, but denote a statement of a fact that is interpreted by the main predicate:

(39) Scientists made it easier this task, subdividing organisms into unitary and modular. [TO. Efremov. Reflections by the Bookshelf: Escape from Loneliness (2003)]

(40) I'm afraid I stupid, agreeing help you. (Internet resource)

3.2. Verbal participle and word order

In constructions with perfect gerunds, two types of temporal relation to the main predicate are usually distinguished - precedence and succession (see).

The semantics of precedence can be expressed both by the preposition of the perfect participle, and by the postposition:

(41) having thought, answered; answered after thinking

The possibility of expressing the semantics of temporal succession as a whole is debatable: we have not come across such examples. Usually, in descriptions, following is referred to as a "logical" (conventional term) consequence (see):

(42) ... September 1, 1939 Germany attacked to Poland, thereby unleashingWorld War II ... [E. Unzhanov. Seventeen years for the good of the enemy fatherland (2003)]

(43) Woman got up in the door, blocking a way out (I. Druta, cited after [Akimova, Kozintseva 1987: 273])

(44) Bear hurt paw my right shoulder, tearing jumpsuit, and at the same time ripping out a piece of leather. (V. Shefner, cited after [Akimova, Kozintseva 1987: 273])

In such structures, the subject performs only one action, but it is transmitted by several predicates at once. Logical following can be expressed by gerunds from both perfective verbs and imperfective verbs (cf. thus unleashing the Second World War), logical following is characterized by the setting of a dependent clause in a post position.

It is interesting to analyze an example of the temporal relations of succession from [Grammar 1980: §1589]:

(45) …unbuttoned frock coat, opening shirt outside

A cursory reading of the example gives the impression that the subject performs 2 actions: first he unbuttons his coat, and then releases the shirt, but when analyzing the context (L. N. Tolstoy “Anna Karenina”, Ryabinin buys wood), it turns out that the hero is a merchant and wears shirt outside, when he unbuttons his coat, he opens " shirt outside, brass vest buttons and watch chain". Thus, this example can also be attributed to "logical following".

Imperfective gerunds are used canonically to denote simultaneity, rarely - precedence (see) or "logical" following: in the first two cases, the gerunds can stand both in the preposition and in the postposition to the main clause, with logical following - only in the postposition.

3.3. Background taxis

Temporal relationships are the core of the taxis connection. An obligatory component of a taxis is the presence of the so-called "single time period" [Bondarko 1987]: two actions expressed in a taxis pair must be directly related in time and observed "from the same point of view." An example of a temporary "gap", i.e. non-compliance with a single time period:

(46) Perhaps that is why evening dresses are traditionally dark in color. By choosing dress, don't scare away potential cavaliers. ["Dasha" (2004)]

The incorrectness of the example is due to the fact that at first choose a dress, and much later potential cavaliers and the possibility of them scare away... Use of an imperfective participle choosing assumes the simultaneity of two actions (or rather, their contiguity, side by side in time).

Logical relationships are often superimposed on the temporary relationships that exist in any taxis couple:

• the reasons:

(47) Left alone, lion was accepted moan and howl plaintively ... [V. Zapashny. Risk. Wrestling. Love (1998-2004)]

(48) First of all, Svidler is “to blame” for this he is brilliant on the first board won Shirova, provingthat it is not in vain that he leads the team (and in the future he was a real leader). ["64 - Chess Review" (2003)]

• concessions:

(49) He spoke in such a way that even not seeing his face, you one by one sound of his voice feltthat he smiles. [AND. C. Turgenev. Asya (1858)]

• conditions:

(50) Starting to do reforms, should be abandoned from autocracy, which is an evil lie. [ABOUT. D. Forsch. Dressed in stone (1924-1925)]

• mode of action:

(51) Schuplenkov froze with a raised pencil, looking down and thickly blushing... [AND. A. Beck. In the last hour (1942)]

In sentences with gerunds, logical relations arise as a result of the semantic interaction of the main and dependent predicates. They are not marked with service parts of speech, as in complex sentences and constructions with predicate actants: in a complex sentence, logical relations are marked with the union ( because, if a, although and others), in a construction with predicate actants, syntactic relations are marked with prepositions ( due to, for the sake, after and etc.).

Several values \u200b\u200bcan be read within the same construct: By visiting our shows , you will get a lot of positive emotions - combination of time values, conditions and reasons.

Logical relationships can be maintained using "explanatory" words - thereby, even, wherein etc .:

(52) In a word, the Imperial Theater will gather a whole scattering of national theatrical talents, thus provingthat its doors are always open to quality art. ["Trud-7" (2006)]

4. Russian participle in a typological perspective. Converba concept

There are several principles for the classification of taxis structures (see) in languages \u200b\u200bof various systems.

Typologists distinguish between two models of taxis expression [Plungyan 2011: 365–369]:

(1) non-finite, in which special non-finite forms are used (see Finiteness), expressing the temporal meanings of simultaneity / difference in time in relation to the main verb, out of connection with the moment of speech;

(2) combined, in which such verb forms are used that express both relative (in relation to another verb) and absolute (in relation to the moment of speech) tense.

Another direction of the typology is the classification of syntactic constructions based on differences in the expression of a dependent predicative unit (dependent clause):

(1) the dependent clause is formalized in a finite form, while the semantic nature of the relationship can be specified by unions;

(2) the dependent clause is organized by a non-finite form, which expresses the dependence of the predicate on the main predicate, while the allied technique is not used;

(3) the dependent clause is organized in a non-finite form, in which analytical indicators of syntactic relations are possible.

In modern Russian syntax, all three models operate, but the first one (the complex sentence itself) is recognized as prototypical. In the Altai languages, for example, on the contrary, dependent clauses in polypredicative constructions are organized in non-phytnitic forms, while researchers speak of two varieties: synthetic (without analytical specifiers) and analytic-synthetic (allowing specifiers) [Cheremisina, Brodskaya, Skribnik et al. 1986 : 5-8].

Taxis structures are also classified according to the category of subject: one-referential, different-referential and indifferent to coincidence, cf. for example, [Khrakovsky 2009]. In Russian, the adverbial participle is subject to the rule of one-subject, therefore, the Russian language chooses the first type.

Thus, the Russian participle has the following typological characteristics:

• expresses only the time of one fact in relation to the time of another fact (taxis), does not have absolute time indicators;
• is not the only and not the main means of organizing the dependent predicative unit;
• refers to one-reference taxis structures;
• has means of synonymous substitution (participle, infinitive, deverbative).

From a typological point of view, the verbal participle belongs to the more general class of converbs. Converb is “a non-finite form of a verb (an adverb or a verbal name with a preposition or postposition), which mainly or always acts as a circumstance. In other words, the converb cannot be the only verbal form of a non-elliptic sentence (only a finite one can be such a form) ”[Nedyalkov 2002: 14]. The term "converb" is used to describe non-finite forms in languages \u200b\u200bof various structures, it allows you to bring together functionally similar forms that organize dependent predication.

5. Verbal participle and norm: the requirement of one-personality

5.1. Rules for the use of the adverbial participle in a single-subject / multi-subject context

The rules for using the Russian participle are traditionally included in the range of problems associated with the syntactic norm. The basic rule was first formulated by MV Lomonosov: “the gerunds in the person must be consistent with the main personal verb, on which all speech is power” [Lomonosov 1755 (1952): 566]. This formulation of the rule ignores questions about generalized personal and impersonal constructions. After MV Lomonosov, many grammarians proposed their own versions of this rule, and the discrepancies were significant. For example, A. A. Barsov believed: “The consent of the verbal participle consists in the fact that it refers to the same person to which the verb connected with it belongs, or to the same thing ...” [Barsov 1981: 223] - this means, that the normative field included impersonal constructions with an indirect case of the subject, i.e. suggestion like: Reading this book makes me feel sad - was recognized as normative. In modern reference books it is said that “the action indicated by the participle refers to usually, to the subject of this proposal ”[Rosenthal et al. 1999: 320]. At the same time, the authors prefer to use the concept “producer of an action” or say that the adverbial turnover may “not express the action of the subject” [ibid: 321]. The strictest concept, presented in [Grammar 1980], recognizes as normative only the gerunds associated with the nominative case of the subject and the gerunds in generalized personal sentences, other constructions remain in the "gray" zone (not recommended). The rest of the reference books allow the use of gerunds in impersonal constructions without the indirect case of the subject (see), i.e .:

(53) a) Reading this book, it becomes sad - normative use

b) Reading this book, to me becomes sad - abnormal use

In accordance with the modern norm, the use of the gerunds belonging to the passive voice (such as * Reading this book, I was very surprised).

5.2. The problem of the adverbial norm in connection with the categories of taxis and modus

"Rule of one-personality", regulating the use of the Russian participle (see. ) is regularly violated, and it has been violated since the time it was introduced by M.V. Lomonosov. The main deviations from the codified norm are still constructions in which the subject is the subject of the modus, i.e. I-speaker, subject of thought and speech:

(54) After thinking for half an hour, by me an action plan has already been drawn up (from the exam)

In example (54), the verbal participle refers to the subject of thought and speech, although, according to the rule, it should correlate with the nominative case of an inanimate noun ( action plan). Wed also:

(55) Having become acquainted with the poem, in my heart remained sadness, but at the same time hope (from the exam)

In example (55), the subject of feeling ( i) is expressed metonymically through non-detachable parts ( my heart).

If the subject of the action and the subject of the mode coincide, then the modus frame can be omitted altogether in the sentence (this is the normal state of the mode of the sentence):

(56) And here / discussing this situation / every change of some stress / gave new semantic interpretation / highlighting // (from oral scientific speech - UNR)

Constructions (57) - (58) are easy to comprehend, but go beyond the norm. They would become normative by expressing the lowered modus frame:

(57) And here / discussing this situation /<можно сказать, я скажу, что> every change of some stress / gave new semantic interpretation / highlighting // (from UNR)

(58) By choosing heading in the section "News text",<можно увидеть, мы видим, видно, что> changes highlighting a fragment relevant to the heading. (Help section for software)

I-modus (implicit) turns out to be the cause of the violation of the adverbial norm: in statements about himself and his feelings, the Speaker semantically does not violate the rules of one-subjectness, in his personal sphere all elements are thought to be inalienable for him - parts of the body, feelings, thoughts. This means that the nominative case does not express another subject and is part of the descriptive predicate ( there was a desire, the thought came to mind, an idea was born). So, with the phrase I got a frost on my skin The speaker can easily connect the adjective seeing thissince both of these parts correspond to one subject - I... Formally, the rule for using gerunds is violated, semantically, it is not violated.

Normative grammars take a formal approach: if there is a nominative case, then the gerunds must include it in its actant structure ( frost can not see).

6. Borders of the verbal participle

The gerunds in the language system can be represented as a field: in the center is the verb form intended to express taxis meanings of simultaneity / diversity (see), i.e. associated with the category of time. At the same time, in the absolute center, the gerunds of the perfect form will turn out to be nuclear, closer to the periphery - the gerunds of the imperfect form, which can pass into other parts of speech. Since the gerunds are characterized by (a) a connection with the reference form in time and (b) a connection with the (semantic) subject of the main predicate, then with complete violation one of these connections becomes possible the transition of the gerunds to other parts of speech. In particular, adverbial forms can go back to:

6.1. Verbal participle and adverb

The frozen form of the verbal participle can acquire the status of an adverb. Adverbialization of the gerunds from a semantic point of view consists in the loss of their temporal meaning: it ceases to denote a situation that changes over time and acquires the meaning of a static sign. Wed:

(59) He reads, lying on the couch - 'he reads and lies on the couch' (participle)

(60) He reads lying down - ‘he reads in a certain position’ (adverb)

Wed example for adverbial use of the form lying down from the Corps:

(61) I will not say that it is precisely because I have been read lyingI have excellent eyesight. [IN. Shalamov. Diaries (1954-1979)]

Wed See also the use of adverbs that go back to gerunds in sports terminology: jump with two side screws bending over .

From a formal point of view, the transition of an adverbial participle into an adverb is characterized by the loss of syntactic and morphological signs of an adverbial participle and the acquisition of features characteristic of an adverb, namely:

(62) Travel standing prohibited (on the doors of a minibus)

• no requirement of single-personality:

(63) True place the patient lying inside the cabin is unlikely to succeed. (Yandex)

The transition of an adverb to an adverb is reflected in the punctuation system: a separate adverb, in contrast to the adverb itself, is not distinguished in writing by commas.

6.2. German participle and derivative prepositions

The transition of an adverbial participle into derivative prepositions is accompanied by a mismatch between the adverbial participle and the main verb according to the subject, that is, a regular violation of the rule for using the adverbial participle (see):

(64) a) Before reaching before the traffic light, turn to the left - gerunds

b) Before reaching traffic light, will be bakery - derived preposition

(65) a) Starting out working day at 8 am, finished its at 8 pm - gerunds

b) Test work wrote all the students, starting out from the first year - a derivative preposition

It is believed that verbs with a derivative (figurative) non-functional meaning are limited in their ability to form gerunds: * Windows overlooking the garden ...; *House standing on the outskirts of town… (Verbs go out, to stand are intended to express actions, primarily of a person; in constructions with inanimate subjects, these verbs lose the ability to form gerunds). Their basic and derived meanings are in conflict. However, there is limited quantity this kind of use of the participle with an inanimate subject, which are on the periphery of the norm, but still occur in texts. Presumably, they are associated with the "youth" of the adverbial form itself and the fuzzy border between the functions of modern participles and gerunds (see):

(85) The handle should not be heavy so that the knife hanging at the waist <ср. hanging at the waist\u003e, did not tip over and did not get out of the scabbard. [IN. Semenovsky. Tourist Equipment (1929)]

(86) ... house standing on one pillar <ср. standing on one pillar\u003e will soon fall apart. (Yandex)

(87) Garrison sent off the escort who accompanied Edway and himself led the prisoner into his office; its windows, going out to the prison yard <ср. overlooking the prison yard\u003e were covered with bars. (A. Green. Two promises)

(88) The policeman looked at the patrol car in confusion. Even standing across the road <не заменяется на *standing across the road due to the attribution to the pronoun\u003e, God forbid, it blocked one and a half stripes. (Yandex)

In modern Russian, participles are often used in such constructions, because A participle can have an absolute temporal characteristic, and not a relative one, like a participle (see about this in the article Communion).

The gravitation of gerunds to animate subjects is also found in impersonal sentences: the gerunds are not used in actually impersonal constructions, with predicates with the meaning of the state of the environment ( dawn, freezes). In sentences with the meaning of a person's state ( feverish, chills, nauseous) gerunds appear, but are rejected by the literary norm (see clause 5.2). On the Internet, you can see examples of the type:

(89) Sometimes even nauseous, seeing another such dummy in a bright and popular wrapper. (Internet resource)

In this case, the verbs in such examples do not denote a physical state, but an emotional one, and the subject, as a rule, is the Speaker.

In impersonal sentences with modal words and infinitives ( need, can, need, should, worth, relies + say hello) the participle is possible, since the subject of the participle is coreferent to the subject of the infinitive, which is animate. In this case, only those uses in which the dative case of the subject is absent (see Dative case) are recognized as normative ([Itskovich 1982], [Rosenthal 1999]):

(90) It is necessary, guided by arrow, get around all checkboxes and reach finish line. ["Tram" (1990)]

(91) Some bright colors can be added by planting several plants of nasturtium and marigolds. ["DIY Garden" (2003)]

Such use is considered abnormal:

(92) In the latter case you need to use one of its elements, having obtained its in the same way as raisins are extracted from rolls and mercury from thermometers, that is, the battery will have to be broken. [Chemistry and Life (1966)]

7.3. Competition of participles and participles

The spheres of use of the two verb forms - the real participle and the gerunds - are close, intersections can occur in the proverbial position (when the adverbial / participle turnover directly follows the subject to which it belongs, or immediately precedes it, see examples (85) - (88 ) (cm. )). The competition of forms is associated, first of all, with the origin of the adverbial form from the participle (see), however, some distinctive features of each of the forms associated with:

• restrictiveness;
• temporary localization.

A. Restrictiveness / non-restrictiveness

Participles have a restrictive (restrictive) function (for more information on restrictiveness, see the article Definition), i.e. limit the reference of the noun phrase with which they are connected, the gerunds do not change the referential status of the noun phrase:

(93) ... in ballroom dancing master, playing with music, intentionally stretch movement ... [Martial Art of the Planet (2003)] - all masters when playing with music

(94) In ballroom dancing master, playing with music, intentionally stretch motion. - only those masters who play with music

B. Localization in time

The possibility of synonymously replacing adverbial participles with participles is associated with the semantics of time: the adverb is associated with a "single time period" ([Bondarko 1987]) with the main predicate, this connection presupposes, in addition to direct contact in time, temporal localization common for the two predicates (localized / non-localized in time act). The participle has an absolute temporal characteristic; in constructions with a participle, situations localized and non-localized in time can be combined:

(95) Embarrassed <embarrassed\u003e in a new and large society, Nikanor Ivanovich, hesitating some time followed common example and sat down on the parquet in Turkish .... [M. A. Bulgakov. The Master and Margarita (1929-1940)]

In example (95), the verb participle get embarrassedin the context it means ‘embarrassed (in this new big society)’, the participle of the same verb will mean not a temporary state of the subject, but its permanent property: Nikanor Ivanovich, embarrassed in a new and large society, ... \u003d ‘usually embarrassed’. The verbal participle coincides in temporal localization with the main predicate (both actions are localized in time), and the participle does not coincide and denotes a non-localized action, in contrast to the main predicate. Wed verb form of participle wrinkle, the value of which suggests a temporary localization ( hesitated for a while), the participle in this case cannot be used.

8. Text functions of the participle

8.1. Gerous participles in narrative and descriptive contexts

By virtue of its taxis (see item 3) essence and in connection with the attraction to the animate subject and actional verbs (see.

(96) Arriving home, she was in a hurry to send away the sleepy girl, who reluctantly offered her a favor, - she said that she would undress herself, and with trepidation went into her room, hoping find Hermann there and wishing not find it. [AND. S. Pushkin. The Queen of Spades]

In this fragment, the perfect adverbial participle expresses the dynamics of events, the imperfect adverbial participle takes us to inner world heroines, in thoughts unfolding simultaneously with events, parallel to events.

Prepositive participles of the perfect form are one of the means of connectivity, connecting a number of plot-related events in a linear sequence of speech:

(97) Bursting in into the entrance, Ivan Nikolayevich took off to the second floor, immediately found this apartment and called impatiently; Taking brush under the arm, Margarita entered the staircase, pushing by the door of the surprised doorman; ... breaking knocked the closet door in the same office, rushed into the bedroom. Smashing mirrored cabinet, she pulled the critic's suit out of it and drowned it in the bathtub. [M. A. Bulgakov. The Master and Margarita (1929-1940)]

The attributive-characterizing function is performed by imperfect participles, for example, from verbs expressing the external manifestation of the hero's inner state ( blush, turn pale, to smile, to frown and under.). Gerunds type blushing, smiling, frowning, grinning often used with speech verbs:

(98) …said she, for some reason blushing and lowering his eyes [L. N. Tolstoy. War and Peace (1867-1869)]

(99) said Pierre, blushing [L. N. Tolstoy. War and Peace (1867-1869)]

(100) - Comrade Homeless, have mercy, - answered face, blushing, backing away and already repenting; - So she went! - screamed Natasha, more and more blushing because they do not believe her; ... viciously grinning completely in the face of the findirector, spoke Varenukha. [M. A. Bulgakov. Master and Margarita]

NOTE... Gerunds type blushing, smiling indicate the internal state of a person, which is not always clear to the narrator, therefore such participles are often combined with a pronominal adverb for some reason: naruto said, blushing for some reason; for some reason blushing, said Billy Bentley; said Sasha, blushing for some reason; And I'm not bad, ”she said, blushing for some reason; Nadya Narkevich quietly approached Karbyshev and, for some reason, blushing, said; "" I am Aqueduct, Semyon, "he said, for some reason more reddened; I broke my knee, so I dragged her in my arms, - for some reason, blushing, Ichigo betrayed; Here, - he said, blushing for some reason, - read the texts (Internet resource)

According to the Corps, when requesting a verbal participle blushingout of 969 occurrences (with unbreakable homonymy), more than 85% of examples contain combinations of a verbal participle blushingwith a verb of speech, for 393 occurrences when requesting a gerunds frowning accounts for more than 50% of examples with verbs of speech, for gerunds smiling out of 7822 occurrences - examples with verbs of speech are also about 50%.

It is important to note that in dialogues, the main predicates are often represented by perfect verbs ( said, answered, spoke, whispered), although until the 70s. XIX century, this position was dominated by imperfective verbs.

In descriptive contexts, verbal participles are connected with inanimate subjects, which denote parts of a landscape, fragments of space (for more details on the possibilities of using verbal participles with an inanimate subject, see):

(101) Imagine an arched sea bay, not far from it a fortress, above which go, towering along the shore, white, without roofs, like sakles, houses and, forming as if pyramid, {!LANG-0dfe42ef51757b0ae4a7c9003ffc402d!}{!LANG-7f586bd22d4f69097dfee906bf51aa3a!}

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{!LANG-32b18e81e20924707d2f1a20561fcada!}<…> {!LANG-12233286a42ecac47014101dca7089b9!} <улица> {!LANG-1a7a8abbe741f19841636e2e2d7a5fa9!}{!LANG-d80344eb4a45c11e63d7a4c549853f87!} {!LANG-a2876334662e588e2c603cf704d8d583!}{!LANG-0337df5c2954124ccb4c20669fab7855!} {!LANG-8050016106474df60202ec91195fa68f!}{!LANG-c57e7b584e8f922a87efc5ae83b37b81!}

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